Change in mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: a longitudinal study of residents of Indian metropolitan cities

Trajectories and correlates of poor mental health in India over the course of the COVID-19 pandemic: a nationwide survey

INTRODUCTION

The COVID-19 pandemic had large impacts on mental health; however, most existing evidence is focused on the initial lockdown period and high-income contexts. By assessing trajectories of mental health symptoms in India over 2 years, we aim to understand the effect of later time periods and pandemic characteristics on mental health in a lower-middle income context.

METHODS

We used data from the Real-Time Insights of COVID-19 in India cohort study (N=3709). We used covariate-adjusted linear regression models with generalised estimating equations to assess associations between mental health (Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-4) score; range 0-12) and pandemic periods as well as pandemic characteristics (COVID-19 cases and deaths, government stringency, self-reported financial impact, COVID-19 infection in the household) and explored effect modification by age, gender and rural/urban residence.

RESULTS

Mental health symptoms dropped immediately following the lockdown period but rose again during the delta and omicron waves. Associations between mental health and later pandemic stages were stronger for adults 45 years of age and older (p<0.001). PHQ-4 scores were significantly associated with all pandemic characteristics considered, including estimated COVID-19 deaths (PHQ-4 difference of 0.10 units; 95% CI 0.06 to 0.13), government stringency index (0.14 units; 95% CI 0.11 to 0.18), self-reported major financial impacts (1.20 units; 95% CI 1.09 to 1.32) and COVID-19 infection in the household (0.36 units; 95% CI 0.23 to 0.50).

CONCLUSION

While the lockdown period and associated financial stress had the largest mental health impacts on Indian adults, the effects of the pandemic on mental health persisted over time, especially among middle-aged and older adults. Results highlight the importance of investments in mental health supports and services to address the consequences of cyclical waves of infections and disease burden due to COVID-19 or other emerging pandemics.

Trajectories and correlates of poor mental health in India over the course of the COVID-19 pandemic: a nation-wide survey

Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic had large impacts on mental health; however, most existing evidence is focused on the initial lockdown period and high-income contexts. By assessing trajectories of mental health symptoms in India over two years, we aim to understand the effect of later time periods and pandemic characteristics on mental health in a lower-middle income context.

Methods

We used data from the Real-Time Insights of COVID-19 in India (RTI COVID-India) cohort study (N=3,662). We used covariate-adjusted linear regression models with generalized estimating equations to assess associations between mental health (PHQ-4 score) and pandemic periods as well as pandemic characteristics (COVID-19 cases and deaths, government stringency, self-reported financial impact, COVID-19 infection in the household) and explored effect modification by age, gender, and rural/urban residence.

Results

Mental health symptoms dropped immediately following the lockdown period but rose again during the delta and omicron waves. Associations between mental health and later pandemic stages were stronger for adults 45 years of age and older (p<0.001). PHQ-4 scores were significantly and independently associated with all pandemic characteristics considered, including estimated COVID-19 deaths (PHQ-4 difference of 0.041 SD units; 95% Confidence Interval 0.030 - 0.053), government stringency index (0.060 SD units; 0.048 - 0.072), self-reported major financial impacts (0.45 SD units; 0.41-0.49), and COVID-19 infection in the household (0.11 SD units; 0.07-0.16).

Conclusion

While the lockdown period and associated financial stress had the largest mental health impacts on Indian adults, the effects of the pandemic on mental health persisted over time, especially among middle-age and older adults. Results highlight the importance of investments in mental health supports and services to address the consequences of cyclical waves of infections and disease burden due to COVID-19 or other emerging pandemics.