Limonoid constituents of Euodia rutaecarpa var. bodinieri and their inhibition on NO production in lipopolysaccharide-activated RAW264.7 macrophages

Mechanism-Based Inactivation of Cytochrome P450 3A by Evodol

1. Evodol is one of the furanoids isolated from the fruits of Evodia rutaecarpa that has been widely prescribed for the treatment of gastrointestinal diseases in China. The aim of this study was to investigate the inhibitory effect of evodol on CYP3A.2. A 30-min preincubation of evodol with human liver microsomes raised an obvious left IC₅₀ shift, 3.9-fold for midazolam 1'-hydroxylation and 3.2-fold for testosterone 6β-hydroxylation. Evodol inactivated CYP3A in a time-, concentration- and NADPH-dependent manner, with K_I and k_inact of 5.1 μM and 0.028 min^-1 for midazolam 1'-hydroxylation and 3.0 μM and 0.022 min^-1 for testosterone 6β-hydroxylation.3. Co-incubation of ketoconazole attenuated the inactivation while inclusion of glutathione (GSH) and catalase/superoxide dismutase displayed no such protection.4. cis-Butene-1, 4-dial (BDA) intermediate derived from evodol were trapped by glutathione and N-acetyl-lysine in microsomes and characterized by HR-MS spectra. The BDA intermediate was believed to play a key role in CYP3A inactivation. CYP3A4 and 2C9 were the primary enzymes contributing to the bioactivation of evodol.5. To sum up, for the first time evodol was characterized as a mechanism-based inactivator of CYP3A.

Molecular mechanisms of hepatotoxicity induced by compounds occurring in Evodiae Fructus

Evodiae Fructus (EF) is a common herbal medicine with thousands of years of medicinal history in China, which has been demonstrated with many promising pharmacological effects on cancer, cardiovascular diseases and Alzheimer's disease. However, there have been increasing reports of hepatotoxicity associated with EF consumption. Unfortunately, in a long term, many implicit constituents of EF as well as their toxic mechanisms remain poorly understood. Recently, metabolic activation of hepatotoxic compounds of EF to generate reactive metabolites (RMs) has been implicated. Herein, we capture metabolic reactions relevant to hepatotoxicity of these compounds. Initially, catalyzed by the hepatic cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP450s), the hepatotoxic compounds of EF are oxidized to generate RMs. Subsequently, the highly electrophilic RMs could react with nucleophilic groups contained in biomolecules, such as hepatic proteins, enzymes, and nucleic acids to form conjugates and/or adducts, leading to a sequence of toxicological consequences. In addition, currently proposed biological pathogenesis, including oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage and dysfunction, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, hepatic metabolism disorder, and cell apoptosis are represented. In short, this review updates the knowledge on the pathways of metabolic activation of seven hepatotoxic compounds of EF and provides considerable insights into the relevance of proposed molecular hepatotoxicity mechanisms from a biochemical standpoint, for the purpose of providing a theoretical guideline for the rational application of EF in clinics.

Traditional Chinese medicine Euodiae Fructus: botany, traditional use, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicity and quality control

Euodiae Fructus, referred to as "Wuzhuyu" in Chinese, has been used as local and traditional herbal medicines in many regions, especially in China, Japan and Korea, for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders, headache, emesis, aphtha, dermatophytosis, dysentery, etc. Substantial investigations into their chemical and pharmacological properties have been performed. Recently, interest in this plant has been focused on the different structural types of alkaloids like evodiamine, rutaecarpine, dehydroevodiamine and 1-methyl-2-undecyl-4(1H)-quinolone, which exhibit a wide range of pharmacological activities in preclinical models, such as anticancer, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-cardiovascular disease, etc. This review summarizes the up-to-date and comprehensive information concerning the botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology of Euodiae Fructus together with the toxicology and quality control, and discusses the possible direction and scope for future research on this plant.

Chromatographic and mass spectrometric technologies for chemical analysis of Euodiae fructus: A review

INTRODUCTION

Euodiae fructus, also known as Evodiae fructus, is a popular Chinese herbal medicine derived from the dried, nearly ripe fruits of Tetradium ruticarpum (A. Juss.) T. G. Hartley. The main bioactive constituents of Euodiae fructus are alkaloids, limonoids, flavonoids, and anthraquinones. The contents of these compounds vary greatly between different plant species, geographic locations, and harvest times, which thus affect the therapeutic effects.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to summarize the chromatographic and mass spectrometric technologies applied for chemical analysis and quality evaluation of Euodiae fructus. Moreover, we aimed to emphasize the diverse soft ionization techniques and mass analyzers of LC-MS methods for assessment of Euodiae fructus.

METHODOLOGY

A literature study was carried out by retrieving articles published between January 1988 and December 2021 from well-known databases, including PubMed, ASC, Elsevier, ScienceDirect, J·STAGE, Thieme, Taylor & Francis, Springer Link, Wiley Online Library, and CNKI. The chemical analysis methods were described in several categories in accordance with the used analytical techniques, including thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), capillary electrophoresis (CE), and counter-current chromatography (CCC).

RESULTS

This review systematically summarizes the achievements in chemical analysis and quality evaluation of Euodiae fructus published in over three decades, covering the various chromatographic and mass spectrometric technologies applied for identification and quantification of phytochemical constituents.

CONCLUSION

The summary serves as an important basis for future phytochemical research and implementation of quality control methods in order to ensure the efficacy and safety of Euodiae fructus.

Limonoids with anti-inflammatory activity: A review

The natural limonoids distributed mainly in the Meliaceae and Rutaceae plants are known for their unique and complex structure with high degree oxidation and cyclic rearrangement. However, these compounds exhibit a broad range of biological activities such as insecticidal, antibacterial, antifungal, antimalarial, antioxidant, anticancer, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory. There is still limited report about the biological activity of the anti-inflammatory effect of limonoids isolated from plants. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the effect of intact, deformed and rearranged limonoids as anti-inflammatory agents. The majority of anti-inflammatory investigations were evaluated by in vitro and in vivo assays of the isolated pure compounds and their derivatives. For the in vitro study, intact and C-ring seco limonoids showed a potent inhibitory effect against NO production. The in vivo analysis of Intact, C-seco, and AD-seco limonoids showed a potent effect based on the inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines expression, indicating their potency as anti-inflammatory agents.

Limonin Attenuates LPS-Induced Hepatotoxicity by Inhibiting Pyroptosis via NLRP3/Gasdermin D Signaling Pathway

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced liver injury is the main factor in acute liver failure. The current study aims to investigate the protection of limonin, an antioxidant compound from citrus fruit, against LPS-induced liver toxicity and elucidate the potential mechanisms. We found that limonin elevated cell viability and reduced LDH release in LPS-treated HepG2 cells. Limonin also inhibited LPS-induced pyroptosis by inhibiting membrane rupture, reducing ROS generation, and decreasing gasdermin D activation. Moreover, limonin inhibited the formation of a NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3)/Apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD (ASC) complex by reducing the related protein expression and the colocalization cytosolic of NLRP3 and caspase-1 and then suppressed IL-1β maturation. Ultimately, we established LPS-induced hepatotoxicity in vivo by using C57BL/6 mice administrated LPS (10 mg/kg) intraperitoneally and limonin (50 and 100 mg/kg) orally. We found that limonin dereased the serum ALT and AST activity and LDH release and increased the hepatic GSH amount in LPS-treated mice. Additionally, the liver histological evaluation revealed that limonin protects against LPS-induced liver damage. We further demonstrated that limonin ameliorated LPS-induced hepatotoxicity by inhibiting pyroptosis via the NLRP3/gasdermin D signaling pathway. In summary, this study uncovered the mechanism whereby limonin mitigated LPS-induced hepatotoxicity and documented that limonin might be a promising candidate drug for LPS-induced hepatotoxicity.

Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and toxicology of the fruit of Tetradium ruticarpum: A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The fruit of Tetradium ruticarpum (FTR) known as Tetradii fructus or Evodiae fructus (Wu-Zhu-Yu in Chinese) is a versatile herbal medicine which has been prescribed in Chinese herbal formulas and recognized in Japanese Kampo. FTR has been clinically used to treat various diseases such as headache, vomit, diarrhea, abdominal pain, dysmenorrhea and pelvic inflammation for thousands of years.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The present paper aimed to provide comprehensive information on the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, drug interaction and toxicology of FTR in order to build up a foundation on the mechanism of ethnopharmacological uses as well as to explore the trends and perspectives for further studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This review collected the literatures published prior to July 2020 on the phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and toxicity of FTR. All relevant information on FTR was gathered from worldwide accepted scientific search engines and databases, including Web of Science, PubMed, Elsevier, ACS, ResearchGate, Google Scholar, and Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). Information was also obtained from local books, PhD. and MSc. Dissertations as well as from Pharmacopeias.

RESULTS

FTR has been used as an herbal medicine for centuries in East Asia. A total of 165 chemical compounds have been isolated so far and the main chemical compounds of FTR include alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, steroids, and phenylpropanoids. Crude extracts, processed products (medicinal slices) and pure components of FTR exhibit a wide range of pharmacological activities such as antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-obesity, antioxidant, insecticide, regulating central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis, cardiovascular protection. Furthermore, bioactive components isolated from FTR can induce drug interaction and hepatic injury.

CONCLUSIONS

Therapeutic potential of FTR has been demonstrated with the pharmacological effects on cancer, inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, CNS, bacterial infection and obesity. Pharmacological and pharmacokinetic studies of FTR mostly focus on its main active alkaloids. Further in-depth studies on combined medication and processing approaches mechanisms, pharmacological and toxic effects not limited to the alkaloids, and toxic components of FTR should be designed.

Simultaneous Qualitative and Quantitative Evaluation of the Coptidis Rhizoma and Euodiae Fructus Herbal Pair by Using UHPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS and UHPLC-DAD

The herbal pair of Coptidis Rhizoma (CR) and Euodiae Fructus (EF) is a classical traditional Chinese medicine formula used for treating gastro-intestinal disorders. In this study, we established a systematic method for chemical profiling and quantification analysis of the major constituents in the CR-EF herbal pair. A method of ultra high performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS) for qualitative analysis was developed. Sixty-five compounds, including alkaloids, phenolics, and limonoids, were identified or tentatively assigned by comparison with reference standards or literature data. The UHPLC fingerprints of 19 batches of the CR-EF herbal pair samples were obtained and the reference fingerprint chromatograms were established. Furthermore, nine compounds among 24 common peaks of fingerprints were considered as marker components, which either had high contents or significant bioactivities, were applied to quality control of the CR-EF herbal pair by quantitative analysis. This UHPLC-DAD analysis method was validated by precision, linearity, repeatability, stability, recovery, and so on. The method was simple and sensitive, and thus reliable for quantitative and chemical fingerprint analysis for the quality evaluation and control of the CR-EF herbal pair and related traditional Chinese medicines.

Evodiamine has therapeutic efficacy in ulcerative colitis by increasing Lactobacillus acidophilus levels and acetate production

Emerging evidence implicates gut microbiota have an important role in ulcerative colitis (UC). Previous study indicated that Evodiamine (EVO) can alleviate colitis through downregulating inflammatory pathways. However, specific relationship between EVO-treated colitis relief and regulation of gut microbiota is still unclear. Here, our goal was to determine the potential role of gut microbiota in the relief of UC by EVO. By using pathology-related indicators, 16S rRNA sequencing and metabolomics profiling, we assessed the pharmacological effect of EVO on dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis rats as well as on the change of gut microbiota and metabolism. Fecal derived from EVO-treated rats was transplanted into colitis rats to verify the effect of EVO on gut microbiota, and 'driver bacteria' was found and validated by 16S rRNA sequencing, metagenome and qRT-PCR. The effect of Lactobacillus acidophilus (L. acidophilus) was investigated by vivo experiment, microbiota analysis, Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) quantification and colon transcriptomics. EVO reduced the susceptibility to DSS-induced destruction of epithelial integrity and severe inflammatory response, and regulated the gut microbiota and metabolites. Fecal Microbiota Transplantation (FMT) alleviated DSS-induced colitis, increased the abundance of L. acidophilus and the level of acetate. Furthermore, gavaged with L. acidophilus reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines, promoted the increase of goblet cells and the secretion of antimicrobial peptides, regulated the ratio of Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes and increased the level of acetate. Our results indicated that EVO mitigation of DSS-induced colitis is associated with increased in L. acidophilus and protective acetate production, which may be a promising strategy for treating UC.

Processing and Polyherbal Formulation of Tetradium ruticarpum (A. Juss.) Hartley: Phytochemistry, Pharmacokinetics, and Toxicity

Herbal medicine is a major part of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), which is evolved as a system of medical practice from ancient China. The use of herbal medicine is mainly based on practice and theories and concepts rooted in ancient philosophy. In the era of evidence-based medicine, it is essential to accurately evaluate herbal remedy with standard/modern medical practice approaches. Tetradium ruticarpum (A. Juss.) Hartley (TR), a medicinal plant with diversify bioactive components, has been broadly used to treat pain and gastrointestinal disorders in TCM. However, TR has also been reported to have potential toxicity by long-term use or excessive doses, though the associated compounds are yet to be identified. TR is usually processed, and/or combined with other herbs in TCM formulas in order to achieve a synergistic effect or reduce its toxicity. Since processing or polyherbal formulation of TR may lead to changes in its chemical composition and contents, quality, efficacy and toxicity, comparison of TR samples before and after processing, as well as its combination with other medicines, would provide useful knowledge of bioactive compounds, efficacy and toxicity of this valuable medicinal plant. Here we reviewed the recent studies about the phytochemistry, pharmacokinetic behaviors and toxicity of TR under various processing or polyherbal formulation conditions, which would expand our understanding of mechanisms of TR's efficacy and toxicity and be valuable for quality control in industrial manufacturing, future medicinal research, and safety and rational use of TR in TCM.

Limonin: A Review of Its Pharmacology, Toxicity, and Pharmacokinetics

Limonin is a natural tetracyclic triterpenoid compound, which widely exists in Euodia rutaecarpa (Juss.) Benth., Phellodendron chinense Schneid., and Coptis chinensis Franch. Its extensive pharmacological effects have attracted considerable attention in recent years. However, there is no systematic review focusing on the pharmacology, toxicity, and pharmacokinetics of limonin. Therefore, this review aimed to provide the latest information on the pharmacology, toxicity, and pharmacokinetics of limonin, exploring the therapeutic potential of this compound and looking for ways to improve efficacy and bioavailability. Limonin has a wide spectrum of pharmacological effects, including anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and analgesic, anti-bacterial and anti-virus, anti-oxidation, liver protection properties. However, limonin has also been shown to lead to hepatotoxicity, renal toxicity, and genetic damage. Moreover, limonin also has complex impacts on hepatic metabolic enzyme. Pharmacokinetic studies have demonstrated that limonin has poor bioavailability, and the reduction, hydrolysis, and methylation are the main metabolic pathways of limonin. We also found that the position and group of the substituents of limonin are key in affecting pharmacological activity and bioavailability. However, some issues still exist, such as the mechanism of antioxidant activity of limonin not being clear. In addition, there are few studies on the toxicity mechanism of limonin, and the effects of limonin concentration on pharmacological effects and toxicity are not clear, and no researchers have reported any ways in which to reduce the toxicity of limonin. Therefore, future research directions include the mechanism of antioxidant activity of limonin, how the concentration of limonin affects pharmacological effects and toxicity, finding ways to reduce the toxicity of limonin, and structural modification of limonin—one of the key methods necessary to enhance pharmacological activity and bioavailability.

Genus Tetradium L.: A comprehensive review on traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The dried fruit of Tetradium ruticarpum is frequently utilized as a common traditional medicine in China, Japan and Korea. It has been widely used for the treatment of various diseases such as headache, menorrhalgia, dermatophytosis, celialgia, emesis and aphtha and so on.

AIM OF THIS REVIEW

Despite the wide biological activities of Tetradium plants, there is no current review summarizing medicinal properties of the genus of plants; thus, this review aims to systematically summarize studies on botanical characteristics, traditional uses, phytochemical ingredients, quality control, pharmacokinetics, pharmacological activities and toxicity of Tetradium species to demonstrate their therapeutic capacity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information and materials related to Tetradium species were obtained from scientific databases such as Google Scholar, Wikipedia, Web of Science, PubMed, ScienceDirect, ACS Publications, SciFinder. Information was also gathered from International Plant Names Index, Global Biodiversity Information Facility, Chinese Pharmacopoeia and Traditional Chinese Medicine classics, etc. All studies of this genus were included in this review until July 2018.

RESULTS

Tetradium is widely assessed regarding its phytochemistry and biological activities. Approximately 131 chemical compounds, including alkaloids, saponins, phenols and other compounds, have been isolated from Tetradium plants. Among these components, alkaloid evodiamine is the most representative active ingredients of Tetradium plants. These compounds isolated from Tetradium plants exhibit a wide range of biological activities in vitro and in vivo including antitumor, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, insecticide, cardioprotective and lipid-lowering, treating CNS disorders, digestive system regulation and endocrine system improving activities. Furthermore, alkaloids could be used as markers for quality identification and evaluation of medicinal materials and their preparations. Information on evaluating the safety and pharmacokinetics of Tetradium often focuses on the alkaloids, thus further study and clinical data are required to enable the drug safety of the utilization of Tetradium plants.

CONCLUSIONS

Phytochemical and pharmacological studies of Tetradium plants have proved Tetradium plants are important medicinal herb resource. However, well-designed randomized clinical trials are necessary to confirm the therapeutic benefits of this genus in clinical settings.

Recognition and Optimization of Ingredients Treating Nitroglycerin-Induced Migraine Rats from Wuzhuyu Decoction

Wuzhuyu decoction (WZYD) has been clinically used to treat migraine effectively since Eastern Han Dynasty of ancient China. However, its antimigrainic ingredients remain unclear. In present study, the antimigrainic ingredients of WZYD were explored and optimized in nitroglycerin-induced migraine rats through correlation analysis of decoction spectra-pharmacological effects and absorption spectra-pharmacological using entropy-weighted partial least squares regression method. The decoction spectra and absorption spectra were obtained through the determination of nine main ingredients in ten kinds of WZYDs and WZYDs' single-pass intestinal perfusion samples using high performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector. The pharmacodynamics indexes related to migraine model rats were detected using high performance liquid chromatography method and kits after oral administration of WZYDs. Then, the key ingredients influencing indexes were achieved through the correlation analysis. And the optimization of key ingredients was acquired through uniform design experiment. The pharmacodynamic verification test was used to clarify the advantages of the optimized sample. The results showed that the final optimized sample, in which the concentrations of rutaecarpine, evodiamine, ginsendside Rb₁, 6-gingerol, ginsendside Rg₁, rutaevine, and limonin were 0.081, 0.565, 1.455, 0.159, 0.871, 0.178, and 0.009 mg·mL⁻¹, respectively, provided the best comprehensive effect than another optimized sample and the best uniform design sample. Therefore, a new reliable method for rapidly recognizing and optimizing the effective constituents of WZYD treating migraine was established.

A New Quinolone Alkaloid with Cytotoxic Activity from the Fruits of Euodia Rutaecarpa

A new quinolone alkaloid, 1-methyl-2-[( Z)-1-undecenyl]–4( 1H)-quinolone (1), together with two known quinolone alkaloids (2–3), and three known limonoids (4–6), were isolated from the fruits of Euodia rutaecarpa (Juss.) Benth.. Their chemical structure was determined by UV, MS, NMR and comparison with literatures. Bioassay results indicated that compound 1 had moderate cytotoxicity against tumor cell lines Lovo, MDA-MB-231 and HeLa with IC50 values of 6.72, 14.20 and 13.05 μM, respectively.

Triterpenoids

Covering: 2013. Previous review: Nat. Prod. Rep., 2015, 29, 1028-1065This review covers the isolation and structure determination of triterpenoids reported during 2013 including squalene derivatives, lanostanes, holostanes, cycloartanes, cucurbitanes, dammaranes, euphanes, tirucallanes, tetranortriterpenoids, quassinoids, lupanes, oleananes, friedelanes, ursanes, hopanes, serratanes, isomalabaricanes and saponins; 350 references are cited.

Evodia alkaloids suppress gluconeogenesis and lipogenesis by activating the constitutive androstane receptor

The constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) is a key sensor in xenobiotic detoxification and endobiotic metabolism. Increasing evidence suggests that CAR also plays a role in energy metabolism by suppressing the hepatic gluconeogenesis and lipogenesis. In this study, we investigated the effects of two evodia alkaloids, rutaecarpine (Rut) and evodiamine (Evo), on gluconeogenesis and lipogenesis through their activation of the human CAR (hCAR). We found that both Rut and Evo exhibited anti-lipogenic and anti-gluconeogenic effects in the hyperlipidemic HepG2 cells. Both compounds can potently activate hCAR, and treatment of cells with hCAR antagonists reversed the anti-lipogenic and anti-gluconeogenic effects of Rut and Evo. The anti-gluconeogenic effect of Rut and Evo was due to the CAR-mediated inhibition of the recruitment of forkhead box O1 (FoxO1) and hepatocyte nuclear factor 4α (HNF4α) onto the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) and glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase) gene promoters. In vivo, we showed that treatment of mice with Rut improved glucose tolerance in a CAR-dependent manner. Our results suggest that the evodia alkaloids Rut and Evo may have a therapeutic potential for the treatment of hyperglycemia and type 2 diabetes. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Xenobiotic nuclear receptors: New Tricks for An Old Dog, edited by Dr. Wen Xie.

New limonoids from Coptidis Rhizoma-Euodiae Fructus couple

A pair of inseparable new limonoids, named euodirutaecins A and B, were isolated from the Coptidis Rhizoma-Euodiae Fructus couple, together with two new single compounds evodirutaenin A and shihulimonin A1, and the known limonoids rutaevin, limonin, 12α-hydroxyrutaevin, and alkaloids rutaecarpine and evodiamine. Structures of these compounds were identified by spectral analyses and quantum chemical computational method, and the six limonoids were also evaluated for cytotoxicities against NCI-N87 and Caco-2 cell lines.