l-3-n-Butylphthalide attenuates β-amyloid-induced toxicity in neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells through regulating mitochondrion-mediated apoptosis and MAPK signaling

The effect of butylphthalide on aminoacid content in the brain of epileptic mice

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study is to observe the effect of butylphthalide (NBP) on the amino acid content in the brain of epileptic mice.

METHODS

NBP was injected intraperitoneally into the mice, and acute epileptic mice models were made after 30 minutes. The change of the four amino (aspartic acid, gamma-aminobutyric acid, glutamate, glycine) content in the brain of the epileptic mice was investigated.

RESULTS

The contents of Glu and Glu/GABA (control group: 38.78, NBP high-dose group: 5.52) in the NBP high-dose group were lower compared with the control group. The difference was statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

NBP could regulate the balance of excitement and inhibition systems by reducing the contents of Glu and Glu/GABA, which might relieve seizures.

Regulation of mitochondrial dysfunction induced cell apoptosis is a potential therapeutic strategy for herbal medicine to treat neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative disease is a progressive neurodegeneration caused by genetic and environmental factors. Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), and Huntington’s disease (HD) are the three most common neurodegenerative diseases clinically. Unfortunately, the incidence of neurodegenerative diseases is increasing year by year. However, the current available drugs have poor efficacy and large side effects, which brings a great burden to the patients and the society. Increasing evidence suggests that occurrence and development of the neurodegenerative diseases is closely related to the mitochondrial dysfunction, which can affect mitochondrial biogenesis, mitochondrial dynamics, as well as mitochondrial mitophagy. Through the disruption of mitochondrial homeostasis, nerve cells undergo varying degrees of apoptosis. Interestingly, it has been shown in recent years that the natural agents derived from herbal medicines are beneficial for prevention/treatment of neurodegenerative diseases via regulation of mitochondrial dysfunction. Therefore, in this review, we will focus on the potential therapeutic agents from herbal medicines for treating neurodegenerative diseases via suppressing apoptosis through regulation of mitochondrial dysfunction, in order to provide a foundation for the development of more candidate drugs for neurodegenerative diseases from herbal medicine.

CaMKIIα Signaling Is Required for the Neuroprotective Effects of Dl-3-n-Butylphthalide in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of neurodegenerative disease and most anti-AD drugs have failed in clinical trials; hence, it is urgent to find potentially effective drugs against AD. DL-3-n-butylphthalide (NBP) is a compound extracted from celery seed and is a multiple-target drug. Several studies have demonstrated the neuroprotective effects of NBP on cognitive impairment, but the mechanisms of NBP remains relatively unexplored. In this study, we found that NBP could alleviated the increase of intracellular Ca²⁺ and reversed down-regulation of Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase alpha (CaMKIIα) signaling and rescued neuronal apoptosis in SH-SY5Y cells treated by Aβ oligomers. However, these neuroprotective effects of NBP on neuronal damage and CaMKIIα signaling were abolished when CaMKIIα expression was knocked down or its activity was inhibited. Thus, our findings suggested that CaMKIIα signaling was required for the neuroprotective effects of NBP in AD and provided an improved basis for elucidating the mechanism and treatment of NBP in AD.

Natural products as pharmacological modulators of mitochondrial dysfunctions for the treatments of Alzheimer's disease: A comprehensive review

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by neuronal loss and cognitive impairment that harshly affect the elderly individuals. Currently, the available anti-AD pharmacological approaches are purely symptomatic to alleviate AD symptoms, and the curative effects of novel anti-AD drugs focused on Aβ target are disappointing. Hence, there is a tremendous need to adjust AD therapeutic targets and discover novel anti-AD agents. In AD, mitochondrial dysfunction gradually triggers neuronal death from different aspects and worsens the occurrence and progress of AD. Consequently, it has been proposed that the intervention of impaired mitochondria represents an attractive breakthrough point for AD treatments. Due to chemical diversity, poly-pharmacological activities, few adverse effects and multiple targeting, natural products (NPs) have been identified as a valuable treasure for drug discovery and development. Multiple lines of studies have scientifically proven that NPs display ameliorative benefits in AD treatment in relation to mitochondrial dysfunction. This review surveys the complicated implications for mitochondrial dysregulation and AD, and then summarizes the potentials of NPs and their underlying molecular mechanisms against AD via reducing or improving mitochondrial dysfunction. It is expected that this work may open the window to speed up the development of innovative anti-AD drugs originated from NPs and improve upcoming AD therapeutics.

Butylphthalide enhances recovery from sudden deafness

OBJECTIVES

Cochlear microcirculation disturbance caused by vasculopathy is a common cause of sudden deafness (SD). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) plays an important role in cochlear injury during ischemia-reperfusion. Butylphthalide can improve microcirculation, reduce ROS formation and inhibit apoptosis. The aim of this study was to investigate the therapeutic effect of butylphthalide on patients with SD.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The hearing gains from 32 ears treated with butylphthalide were compared with that of 32 ears treated with non-butylphthalide. Butylphthalide capsules was administrated orally on an empty stomach for 10 continuous days. There were no significant differences in audiological and clinical data between butylphthalide and non-butylphthalide groups.

RESULTS

The hearing gain of butylphthalide group at 500, 1000, 2000, and 4000 Hz was significantly higher than that of non-butylphthalide group correspondingly (P<0.01). And, the hearing gain at PTA (pure-tone average of 500, 1000, 2000, and 4000 Hz) in butylphthalide group was significantly higher than that of non-butylphthalide group (P<0.01).

CONCLUSION

The recovery of hearing in butylphthalide group was significantly better than that of non-butylphthalide group. It is confirmed that butylphthalide has a definite therapeutic effect on SD.

Donepezil Combined with DL-3-n-Butylphthalide Delays Cognitive Decline in Patients with Mild to Moderate Alzheimer's Disease: A Multicenter, Prospective Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Vascular factors and mitochondria dysfunction contribute to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). DL-3-n-butylphthalide (NBP) has an effect in protecting mitochondria and improving microcirculation.

OBJECTIVE

The aim was to investigate the effect of donepezil combined NBP therapy in patients with mild-moderate AD.

METHODS

It was a prospective cohort study. 92 mild-moderate AD patients were classified into the donepezil alone group (n = 43) or the donepezil combined NBP group (n = 49) for 48 weeks. All patients were evaluated with Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale-Cognitive subscale (ADAS-cog), Clinician's Interview-Based Impression of Change plus caregiver input (CIBIC-plus), Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study-Activities of Daily Living (ADCS-ADL), and Neuropsychiatric Inventory (NPI) every 12 weeks. All patients were monitored for adverse events (AEs). The efficacy was analyzed using multivariate logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

The multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that the changes of ADAS-cog score (OR = 2.778, 95% CI: [1.087, 7. 100], p = 0.033) and ADCS-ADL score (OR = 2.733, 95% CI: [1.002, 7.459], p = 0.049) had significant difference between donepezil alone group and donepezil combined NBP group, while the changes of NPI (OR = 1.145, 95% CI: [0.463, 2.829], p = 0.769), MMSE (OR = 1.563, 95% CI: [0.615, 3.971], p = 0.348) and CIBIC-plus (OR = 2.593, 95% CI: [0.696, 9.685], p = 0.156) had no significant difference. The occurrence of AEs was similar in the two groups.

CONCLUSION

Over the 48-week treatment period, donepezil combined NBP group had slower cognitive decline and better activities of daily living in patients with mild to moderate AD. These indicated that the multi-target therapeutic effect of NBP may be a new choice for AD treatment.

Co-administration of TiO2-nanowired dl-3-n-butylphthalide (dl-NBP) and mesenchymal stem cells enhanced neuroprotection in Parkinson's disease exacerbated by concussive head injury

dl-3-n-butylphthalide (dl-NBP) is a powerful antioxidant compound with profound neuroprotective effects in stroke and brain injury. However, its role in Parkinson's disease (PD) is not well known. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the key factors in precipitating PD like symptoms in civilians and particularly in military personnel. Thus, it would be interesting to explore the possible neuroprotective effects of NBP in PD following concussive head injury (CHI). In this chapter effect of nanowired delivery of NBP together with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in PD with CHI is discussed based on our own investigations. It appears that CHI exacerbates PD pathophysiology in terms of p-tau, α-synuclein (ASNC) levels in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and the loss of TH immunoreactivity in substantia niagra pars compacta (SNpc) and striatum (STr) along with dopamine (DA), dopamine decarboxylase (DOPAC). And homovanillic acid (HVA). Our observations are the first to show that a combination of NBP with MSCs when delivered using nanowired technology induces superior neuroprotective effects in PD brain pathology exacerbated by CHI, not reported earlier.

L-3-n-Butylphthalide improves synaptic and dendritic spine plasticity and ameliorates neurite pathology in Alzheimer's disease mouse model and cultured hippocampal neurons

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia among elderly people. Despite enormous efforts, the pathogenesis of AD still remains unclear and no drug has yet been proved to be disease-modifying. As the basis of learning and memory, the plasticity of synapse and dendritic spine has been impaired during AD progression. Previous studies have showed a protective effect of L-3-n-butylphthalide (L-NBP) on cognitive deficits in AD, we wonder whether this protective effect is associated with positive alterations on synapse and dendritic spines. In this study, we first of all confirmed the anti-dementia effect of L-NBP in 13-month-old APP/PS1 mice, and then investigated the alterations in synaptic and dendritic spine plasticity due to L-NBP treatment both in vivo and in vitro. We also conducted preliminary studies and found the possible mechanisms related to the inhibition of over-activated complement cascade and the remodeling of actin cytoskeleton. Besides, we also found extra benefits of L-NBP on presynaptic dystrophic neurites and attempted to give explanations from the view of autophagy regulation. Taken together, our study added some new evidence to the application of L-NBP in AD treatment and provided deeper insight into the relevant mechanisms for future study.

From Seeds of Apium graveolens Linn. to a Cerebral Ischemia Medicine: The Long Journey of 3-n-Butylphthalide

3-n-Butylphthalide (NBP) as well as its derivatives and analogues (NBPs), in racemic or enantiomerically pure forms, possess potent and diverse pharmacological properties and have shown a great potential therapeutic interest for many human conditions, especially for cerebral ischemia. This Perspective outlines the synthesis and therapeutic applications of NBPs.

Dl-3-n-butylphthalide attenuates mouse behavioral deficits to chronic social defeat stress by regulating energy metabolism via AKT/CREB signaling pathway

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a severe mental disorder associated with high rates of morbidity and mortality. Current first-line pharmacotherapies for MDD are based on enhancement of monoaminergic neurotransmission, but these antidepressants are still insufficient and produce significant side-effects. Consequently, the development of novel antidepressants and therapeutic targets is desired. Dl-3-n-butylphthalide (NBP) is a compound with proven efficacy in treating ischemic stroke, yet its therapeutic effects and mechanisms for depression remain unexplored. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of NBP in a chronic social defeat stress model of depression and its underlying molecular mechanisms. Here, we examined depression-related behavior and performed a targeted metabolomics analysis. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blotting were used to examine key genes and proteins involved in energy metabolism and the AKT/cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) signaling pathway. Our results reveal NBP attenuates stress-induced social deficits, anxiety-like behavior and despair behavior, and alters metabolite levels of glycolysis and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle components. NBP affected gene expression of key enzymes of the TCA cycle, as well as protein expression of p-AKT and p-CREB. Our findings provide the first evidence showing that NBP can attenuate stress-induced behavioral deficits by modulating energy metabolism by regulating activation of the AKT/CREB signaling pathway.

Dl-3n-butylphthalide improves spatial learning and memory in rats with vascular dementia by reducing autophagy via regulation of the mTOR signaling pathway

Dl-3n-butylphthalide (NBP) has been reported to be a beneficial and promising drug for the treatment and prevention of vascular dementia (VD). NBP has been demonstrated to improve learning and memory in rats with vascular cognitive impairment by activating the silent information regulator 1/brain-derived neurotrophic factor pathway. However, NBP is a multi-target drug. Therefore, the present study aimed to determine whether the protective effects of NBP on learning deficits in a rat model of VD were due to the inhibition of autophagy via the phosphorylated mammalian target of rapamycin (p-mTOR) pathway. NBP treatment attenuated memory damage in rats with VD, as demonstrated by T-maze and Morris water maze tests. NBP administration also significantly reduced the levels of the characteristic autophagic proteins Beclin 1 and LC3II and upregulated phosphorylation levels of mTOR at Ser-2448 compared with the VD group. However, treatment of rats with VD with NBP plus the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin failed to significantly suppress Beclin 1 and LC3II expression. These results suggested that the beneficial effects of NBP on learning deficits in a rat model of VD were due to the suppression of ischemia-induced autophagy via the p-mTOR signaling pathway.

Neuroprotective mechanisms of 3-n-butylphthalide in neurodegenerative diseases

Since 3-n-butylphthalide (NBP) was approved by the China Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of acute ischemia stroke in 2002, a number of studies have investigated NBP worldwide. In recent years, NBP has also demonstrated potential as treatment of several neurodegenerative diseases, which has increased the interest in its mechanisms of protection and action. Clinical studies and studies that used cell or animal models, have directly demonstrated neuroprotective effects of NBP via the following mechanisms: i) Inhibiting the inflammatory reaction; ii) reducing mitochondrial oxidative stress; iii) regulating apoptosis and autophagy; iv) inducing resistance to endoplasmic reticulum stress; and v) decreasing abnormal protein deposition. Therefore, NBP may be a potential drug for neurodegenerative diseases, and it is particularly important to identify the mechanism of NBP as it may assist with the development of new drugs for neurodegeneration. The present review summarizes the neuroprotective mechanisms of NBP and discusses new perspectives and prospects. The aim of the current review is to provide a new summary regarding NBP and its associated mechanisms.

Role of p38/MAPKs in Alzheimer's disease: implications for amyloid beta toxicity targeted therapy

A myriad of environmental and genetic factors, as well as the physiologic process of aging, contribute to Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology. Neuroinflammation is and has been a focus of interest, as a common gateway for initiation of many of the underlying pathologies of AD. Amyloid beta (Aβ) toxicity, increasing RAGE expression, tau hyperphosphorylation, induction of apoptosis, and deregulated autophagy are among other mechanisms, partly entangled and being explained by activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and MAPK signaling. p38 MAPK is the most essential regulator of Aβ induced toxicity from this family. p38 induces NF-κB activation, glutamate excitotoxicity, and disruption of synaptic plasticity, which are other implications of all justifying the p38 MAPK as a potential target to break the vicious Aβ toxicity cycle. Until recently, many in vivo and in vitro studies have investigated the effects of p38 MAPK inhibitors in AD. The pyridinyl imidazole compounds SB202190 and SB203580 have shown promising anti-apoptotic results in vivo. MW108 inhibits activation of p38 and is able to postpone cognitive decline in animal models. The PD169316, with anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and anti-apoptotic features, has improved spatial memory in vivo. Natural compounds from Camellia sinensis (green tea), polyphenols from olive oil, pinocembrin from propolis, and the puerarine extract isoflavones, have shown strong anti-apoptotic features, mediated by p38 MAPK inhibition. Use of these drug targets is limited due to central nervous system side effects or cross-reactivity with other kinases, predicting the low efficacy of these drugs in clinical trials.

Application and prospects of butylphthalide for the treatment of neurologic diseases

OBJECTIVE

The 3-N-butylphthalide (NBP) comprises one of the chemical constituents of celery oil. It has a series of pharmacologic mechanisms including reconstructing microcirculation, protecting mitochondrial function, inhibiting oxidative stress, inhibiting neuronal apoptosis, etc. Based on the complex multi-targets of pharmacologic mechanisms of NBP, the clinical application of NBP is increasing and more clinical researches and animal experiments are also focused on NBP. The aim of this review was to comprehensively and systematically summarize the application of NBP on neurologic diseases and briefly summarize its application to non-neurologic diseases. Moreover, recent progress in experimental models of NBP on animals was summarized.

DATA SOURCES

Literature was collected from PubMed and Wangfang database until November 2018, using the search terms including "3-N-butylphthalide," "microcirculation," "mitochondria," "ischemic stroke," "Alzheimer disease," "vascular dementia," "Parkinson disease," "brain edema," "CO poisoning," "traumatic central nervous system injury," "autoimmune disease," "amyotrophic lateral sclerosis," "seizures," "diabetes," "diabetic cataract," and "atherosclerosis."

STUDY SELECTION

Literature was mainly derived from English articles or articles that could be obtained with English abstracts and partly derived from Chinese articles. Article type was not limited. References were also identified from the bibliographies of identified articles and the authors' files.

RESULTS

NBP has become an important adjunct for ischemic stroke. In vascular dementia, the clinical application of NBP to treat severe cognitive dysfunction syndrome caused by the hypoperfusion of brain tissue during cerebrovascular disease is also increasing. Evidence also suggests that NBP has a therapeutic effect for neurodegenerative diseases. Many animal experiments have found that it can also improve symptoms in other neurologic diseases such as epilepsy, cerebral edema, and decreased cognitive function caused by severe acute carbon monoxide poisoning. Moreover, NBP has therapeutic effects for diabetes, diabetes-induced cataracts, and non-neurologic diseases such as atherosclerosis. Mechanistically, NBP mainly improves microcirculation and protects mitochondria. Its broad pharmacologic effects also include inhibiting oxidative stress, nerve cell apoptosis, inflammatory responses, and anti-platelet and anti-thrombotic effects.

CONCLUSIONS

The varied pharmacologic mechanisms of NBP involve many complex molecular mechanisms; however, there many unknown pharmacologic effects await further study.

Hyperascyrins L - N, rare methylated polycyclic polyprenylated acylphloroglucinol derivatives from Hypericum ascyron

Seven natural compounds, including new compounds hyperascyrins L-N (1-3) and four known compounds (4-7), were acquired from the aerial parts of Hypericum ascyron, that were all identified as methylated polycyclic polyprenylated acylphloroglucinol derivatives (mPPAPs). The structures of these compounds were established by NMR spectroscopy, experimental and calculated electronic circular dichroism (ECD) data. The neuroprotective activities and hepatoprotective activity of these compounds (10 µM) were evaluated. Compounds 1, 2 and 3 exhibited neuroprotection activity. Compounds 1 and 3 show hepatoprotective activity.

Dl-3-n-Butylphthalide Exerts Dopaminergic Neuroprotection Through Inhibition of Neuroinflammation

Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation contributes to multiple neurodegenerative disorders, including PD. Therefore, the regulation of microglial activation probably has the therapeutic potential. This study is aimed to determine whether NBP could suppress microglial activation and protect dopaminergic neurons from excessive neuroinflammation. In the present study, MPTP-induced PD model was established to explore the neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effect of NBP. We assessed motor deficits, dopaminergic neurodegeneration and microglial activation in PD mice. In vitro, the anti-inflammatory activity of NBP was confirmed by cell viability assay of SH-SY5Y cells after being treated with conditioned medium from LPS-stimulated BV-2 cells and from 1-Methyl-4-phenylpyridinium iodide (MPP⁺)-stimulated BV-2 cells. The expression of pro-inflammatory molecules was determined by RT-PCR, Western Blot and ELISA assay. The generation of NO and ROS were also assessed. The involvement of signaling pathways such as MAPK, NF-κB, and PI3k/Akt were further investigated by Western Blot and immunofluorescence assay. The neuroprotective effect of NBP was demonstrated in vivo as shown by the improvement of dopaminergic neurodegeneration, motor deficits and microglial activation in MPTP-induced mouse model of PD. The expression of pro-inflammatory mediators was also reduced by NBP administration. In vitro, NBP also protected dopaminergic neurons from neurotoxicity induced by activated microglia. NBP pretreatment not only reduced pro-inflammatory molecules, but also suppressed NO release and ROS generation in BV-2 cells. Further mechanism research suggested that the inactivation of MAPK, NF-κB and PI3K/Akt may involve in anti-neuroinflammation role of NBP. In conclusion, our results revealed that NBP exerted dopaminergic neuroprotection through inhibition of microglia-mediated neuroinflammation, suggesting the promising therapeutic effect of NBP for PD.

3-N-Butylphthalide mitigates high glucose-induced injury to Schwann cells: association with nitrosation and apoptosis

A high glucose state readily causes peripheral axon atrophy, demyelination, loss of nerve fiber function, and delayed regeneration. However, few studies have examined whether nitration is also critical for diabetic peripheral neuropathy. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of high glucose on proliferation, apoptosis, and 3-nitrotyrosine levels of Schwann cells treated with butylphthalide. In addition, we explored potential protective mechanisms of butylphthalide on peripheral nerves. Schwann cells were cultured in vitro with high glucose then stimulated with the peroxynitrite anion inhibitors uric acid and 3-n-butylphthalide for 48 hours. Cell Counting Kit-8 and flow cytometry were used to investigate the effects of uric acid and 3-n-butylphthalide on proliferation and apoptosis of Schwann cells exposed to a high glucose environment. Effects of uric acid and 3-n-butylphthalide on levels of 3-nitrotyrosine in Schwann cells were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The results indicated that Schwann cells cultured in high glucose showed decreased proliferation, but increased apoptosis and intracellular 3-nitrotyrosine levels. However, intervention with uric acid or 3-n-butylphthalide could increase proliferation of Schwann cells cultured in high glucose, and inhibited apoptosis and intracellular 3-nitrotyrosine levels. According to our data, 3-n-butylphthalide may inhibit cell nitrification and apoptosis, and promote cell proliferation, thereby reducing damage to Schwann cells caused by high glucose.

Polycyclic Polyprenylated Acylphloroglucinol Derivatives from Hypericum acmosepalum

Hypericum acmosepalum belongs to the Hypericum genus of the Guttiferae family. The characteristic components in Hypericum are mainly a series of polycyclic polyprenylated acylphloroglucinols (PPAPs), flavonoids, and xanthones. Among them, the PPAPs have received much attention due to their novel structures and diverse pharmacological activities and have become hot spots in organic chemistry and medicinal chemistry. However, there are few reports about the chemical constituents of Hypericum acmosepalum at present, especially the PPAPs. This research is dedicated to the study of the air-dried aerial parts of Hypericum acmosepalum, which were extracted with 95% EtOH under reflux, then suspended and successively partitioned with petroleum ether and ethyl acetate. Five PPAP derivatives were obtained using various chromatographic techniques, and their structures were determined by NMR spectroscopic data, including two new phloroglucinol derivatives, hyperacmosin A (1) and hyperacmosin B (2). Those compounds were evaluated for their neuroprotective effect using two models.

Methylated Polycyclic Polyprenylated Acylphloroglucinol Derivatives from Hypericum ascyron

Hyperascyrins A-H (1-11) and four known compounds (12-15) were acquired from the air-dried aerial parts of Hypericum ascyron and were all identified as methylated polycyclic polyprenylated acylphloroglucinol derivatives. Their structures were established by NMR spectroscopy, experimental and calculated electronic circular dichroism (ECD) data, and comparison with established compounds. Compounds 8 and 9 showed protection against paracetamol-induced HepG2 cell damage at 10 μM. The neuroprotective activities of all compounds (10 μM) were evaluated, and compounds 1 and 8 exhibited mild neuroprotection against glutamate-induced toxicity in SK-N-SH cells.

Dl-3-n-Butylphthalide improves lipopolysaccharide-induced depressive-like behavior in rats: involvement of Nrf2 and NF-κB pathways

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES

Dl-3-n-Butylphthalide (NBP), a small molecule compound extracted from the seeds of Apium graveolens, possesses a large range of biological effects. Here, we attempted to explore the therapeutic effects of NBP on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced major depressive disorder (MDD) and gain further insight into the underlying mechanisms of the antidepressant effects of NBP.

METHODS

We evaluated the effect of NBP against LPS-induced behavioral changes in rats. We also examined the inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis markers and analyzed the Nrf2 and NF-κB pathways in the hippocampus of rats following repeated peripheral immune challenge by LPS for 2 weeks (500 μg/kg every other day).

RESULTS

Our results indicated that repeated LPS administration induced the rats to a depressive-like state and activated inflammatory response, oxidative stress, and apoptosis reactions in the hippocampus. NBP treatment attenuated the LPS-induced abnormal behavior and ameliorated pathogenic processes in rats with MDD. NBP reduced the inflammatory response with inhibited expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-1β and IL-6 and downregulated the NF-κB signal pathway. Concurrent with the anti-inflammation action, NBP reduced LPS-induced oxidative reactions in the hippocampus and enhanced Nrf2-targeted signals, as evidenced by increased transcription of antioxidant enzymes and decreased malondialdehyde (MDA) production. In addition, NBP inhibited LPS-induced neuronal apoptosis in the rat brain, as evidenced by decreased apoptosis marker Caspase-3 production and TUNEL assay.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provide more insight into pathogenesis of MDD and firstly demonstrated the potential antidepressant actions of NBP.

[Protective effect of butylphthalide in a cell model of Alzheimer's disease induced by Aβ25-35 in Neuro 2a cells]

OBJECTIVE

To study the protective effect of butylphthalide in a cell model of Alzheimer's disease(AD) induced by Aβ25-35 in Neuro 2a (N2a) cells.

METHODS

N2a cells were divided into AD group, butylphthalide (NBP) group and control group. AD cell model was established by adding 20 µmol/L Aβ25-35 to cultured N2a cells. The cells in NBP group were treated with 0.1, 1, 10, or 100 µmol/L NBP 4 h prior to treatment with 20 µmol/L Aβ25-35. The cell viability were determined by MTT assay, the cell apoptotic rate were detected by AnnexinV-FITC flow cytometry, and the cell morphological changes were observed under inverted phase contrast microscope. The expression of TNF-α and IL-1β mRNA were determined by qRT-PCR.

RESULTS

Compared with those in the control group, the number of adherent cells was significantly decreased, neurite structures were reduced, and the cell viability was decreased, while the apoptotic rate and expressions of TNF-α and IL-1β mRNA were increased in AD group (P<0.05). Compared with that in AD group, the number of adherent cells was increased in NBP group and the cell morphology was similar to the normal control cells. The cell viability of N2a cells was increased in NBP group with decreased apoptotic rate and expression of TNF-αand IL-1β mRNA (P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

Butylphthalide can protect against AD in the cell model induced by Aβ25-35 possibly by inhibiting the expression of inflammatory cytokines.

Recent Advances in the Inhibition of p38 MAPK as a Potential Strategy for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

P38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) is a crucial target for chronic inflammatory diseases. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by the presence of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain, as well as neurodegeneration, and there is no known cure. Recent studies on the underlying biology of AD in cellular and animal models have indicated that p38 MAPK is capable of orchestrating diverse events related to AD, such as tau phosphorylation, neurotoxicity, neuroinflammation and synaptic dysfunction. Thus, the inhibition of p38 MAPK is considered a promising strategy for the treatment of AD. In this review, we summarize recent advances in the targeting of p38 MAPK as a potential strategy for the treatment of AD and envision possibilities of p38 MAPK inhibitors as a fundamental therapeutics for AD.

A Review of Recent Advances in Neuroprotective Potential of 3-N-Butylphthalide and Its Derivatives

The research of alternative treatment for ischemic stroke and degenerative diseases has always been a priority in neurology. 3-N-Butylphthalide (NBP), a family of compounds initially isolated from the seeds of Apium graveolens Linn., has shown significant neuroprotective effects. Previous extensive studies have demonstrated that NBP promotes a better poststroke outcome and exerts a multitargeted action on several mechanisms, from oxidative stress to mitochondrial dysfunction to apoptosis to inflammation. Additionally, recent findings on several neurological disorders have shown that NBP's beneficial effects extend beyond the management of stroke. However, despite the increasing number of studies toward a better understanding and the rapid advances made in therapeutic options, to date, dl-3-N-butylphthalide, a synthetic variation of l-3-N-butylphthalide, remains the only clinically approved anti-ischemic agent in China, stressing the difficulties for a viable and effective transition from experimental to clinical practice. Events indicate that NBP, due to its multitargeted effect and the adaptability of its basic structure, can be an important game changer and a precursor to a whole new therapeutic approach to several neurological conditions. The present review discusses recent advances pertaining to the neuroprotective mechanisms of NBP-derived compounds and the possibility of their clinical implementation in the management of various neurological conditions.

Protection against β-amyloid-induced neurotoxicity by naturally occurring Z-ligustilide through the concurrent regulation of p38 and PI3-K/Akt pathways

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is primarily characterized by the progressive loss of functional neurons in the brain. Therefore, compounds with neuroprotective property may have therapeutic value in treating AD. Z-ligustilide (Z-LIG) is an essential oil originally isolated from umbelliferous plants. In the current study, the neuroprotective effects and underlying mechanisms of Z-LIG against fibrillar aggregates of Aβ_25-35 and Aβ_1-42-induced neurotoxicity were investigated in both SH-SY5Y cells and differentiated PC12 cells. Z-LIG at 1-30 μM provided an effective neuroprotection, as evidenced by the increase in cell viability, as well as the decrease in LDH release and intracellular accumulation of reactive oxygen species. Additionally, Z-LIG markedly blocked Aβ fibrils-induced condensed nuclei and sub-G1 accumulation suggestive of apoptosis. Furthermore, Z-LIG substantially reversed the activation of phosphorylated p38 and the inhibition of phosphorylated Akt caused by Aβ_25-35. LY294002, the specific inhibitor of PI3-K, significantly abrogated the protein expression of up-regulated phosphorylated Akt offered by Z-LIG. Most importantly, siRNA-mediated knockdown of PI3-K and p38 significantly abolished the neuroprotective effects of Z-LIG. The results taken together indicate that Z-LIG protects against Aβ fibrils-induced neurotoxicity possibly through the inhibition of p38 and activation of PI3-K/Akt signaling pathways concurrently. Z-LIG might be a potential candidate for further preclinical study aimed at the prevention and treatment of AD.

Isotope-edited FTIR reveals distinct aggregation and structural behaviors of unmodified and pyroglutamylated amyloid β peptides

Amyloid β peptide (Aβ) is causatively associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD), and N-terminally truncated and pyroglutamylated Aβ peptides (AβpE) exert hypertoxic effect by an unknown mechanism. Recent evidence has identified the prefibrillar oligomers of Aβ, not the fibrils, as the prevalent cytotoxic species. Structural characterization of Aβ and AβpE oligomers is therefore important for better understanding of their toxic effect. Here we have used isotope-edited Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy to identify the conformational changes in Aβ(1-42) and AβpE(3-42) upon aggregation, individually and in 1 : 1 molar combination. During the first two hours of exposure to aqueous buffer, the peptides undergo transition from mostly α-helical to mostly β-sheet structure. Data on peptides (13)C,(15)N-labeled at K(16)L(17)V(18) or V(36)G(37)G(38)V(39) allowed construction of structural models for the monomer and early oligomers. The peptide monomer comprises a β-hairpin that involves residues upstream of the K(16)L(17)V(18) sequence and an N-terminal α-helix. The oligomers form by non-H-bonding interactions between the β-strands of neighboring β-hairpins, in lateral or staggered manner, with the strands running parallel or antiparallel. Relative α-helical and β-sheet propensities of Aβ(1-42) and AβpE(3-42) depend on the ionic strength of the buffer, emphasizing the importance of ionic interactions in Aβ peptide structure and aggregation. It is inferred that N-terminal modification of AβpE(3-42) affects the helix stability and thereby modulates β-sheet oligomer formation. The data thus provide new insight into the molecular mechanism of Aβ oligomerization by emphasizing the role of the N-terminal transient α-helical structure and by identifying structural constraints for molecular organization of the oligomers.

L-3-n-butylphthalide Rescues Hippocampal Synaptic Failure and Attenuates Neuropathology in Aged APP/PS1 Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease

AIMS

Our previous studies showed that L-3-n-butylphthalide (L-NBP), an extract from seeds of Apium graveolens Linn (Chinese celery), improved cognitive ability in animal models of cerebral ischemia, vascular dementia, and Alzheimer's disease (AD). It is well known that cognitive deficit of AD is caused by synaptic dysfunction. In this study, we investigated the effect of L-NBP on hippocampal synaptic function in APP/PS1 AD transgenic mice and related mechanisms.

METHODS

Eighteen-month-old APP/PS1 transgenic (Tg) mice were administrated 15 mg/kg L-NBP by oral gavage for 3 months. Synaptic morphology and the thickness of postsynaptic density (PSD) in hippocampal neurons were investigated by electron microscope. The dendritic spines, Aβ plaques, and glial activation were detected by staining. The expressions of synapse-related proteins were observed by Western blotting.

RESULTS

L-NBP treatment significantly increased the number of synapses and apical dendritic thorns and the thickness of PSD, increased the expression levels of synapse-associated proteins including PSD95, synaptophysin (SYN), β-catenin, and GSK-3β, and attenuated Aβ plaques and neuroinflammatory responses in aged APP/PS1 Tg mice.

CONCLUSION

L-NBP may restore synaptic and spine function in aged APP Tg mice through inhibiting Aβ plaques deposition and neuroinflammatory response. Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway may be involved in L-NBP-related restoration of synaptic function.

Polycyclic Polyprenylated Acylphloroglucinol Congeners from Hypericum scabrum

Twenty polycyclic polyprenylated acylphloroglucinols (PPAPs), including the new compounds hyperscabrones A-I (1-9), were isolated from the air-dried aerial parts of Hypericum scabrum. These compounds comprise seven different structural types. All structures were determined by NMR spectroscopic methods and both experimental and calculated electronic circular dichroism (ECD) spectra. The evaluation of their neuroprotective effects on glutamate-induced toxicity in SK-N-SH cells showed that compounds 4-7 exhibited significant neuroprotection at 10 μM. Additionally, compounds 3, 4, 7, and 9 showed moderate hepatoprotective activities against paracetamol-induced HepG2 cell damage at 10 μM.

Linking mitochondrial dysfunction, metabolic syndrome and stress signaling in Neurodegeneration

Mounting evidence suggests a link between metabolic syndrome (MetS) such as diabetes, obesity, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD) and other neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). For instance, accumulated Aβ oligomer is enhancing neuronal Ca²⁺ release and neural NO where increased NO level in the brain through post translational modification is modulating the level of insulin production. It has been further confirmed that irrespective of origin; brain insulin resistance triggers a cascade of the neurodegeneration phenomenon which can be aggravated by free reactive oxygen species burden, ER stress, metabolic dysfunction, neuorinflammation, reduced cell survival and altered lipid metabolism. Moreover, several studies confirmed that MetS and diabetic sharing common mechanisms in the progression of AD and NDDs where mitochondrial dynamics playing a critical role. Any mutation in mitochondrial DNA, exposure of environmental toxin, high-calorie intake, homeostasis imbalance, glucolipotoxicity is causative factors for mitochondrial dysfunction. These cumulative pleiotropic burdens in mitochondria leads to insulin resistance, increased ROS production; enhanced stress-related enzymes that is directly linked MetS and diabetes in neurodegeneration. Since, the linkup mechanism between mitochondrial dysfunction and disease phenomenon of both MetS and NDDs is quite intriguing, therefore, it is pertinent for the researchers to identify and implement the therapeutic interventions for targeting MetS and NDDs. Herein, we elucidated the pertinent role of MetS induced mitochondrial dysfunction in neurons and their consequences in NDDs. Further, therapeutic potential of well-known biomolecules and chaperones to target altered mitochondria has been comprehensively documented. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Quality in Diabetes/Obesity and Critical Illness Spectrum of Diseases - edited by P. Hemachandra Reddy.

L-3-n-Butylphthalide attenuates neuroinflammatory responses by downregulating JNK activation and upregulating Heme oxygenase-1 in lipopolysaccharide-treated mice

Microglia activation-induced neuroinflammation contributes to neuronal damage in neurodegenerative diseases. Inhibition of microglia activation and reduction of major neurotoxic cytokines have been becoming a therapeutic strategy for neurodegenerative diseases. L-3-n-Butylphthalide (L-NBP) has shown the potent neuroprotective effects in stroke and Alzheimer's disease animal models. The present study investigated the immune modulatory effects of L-NBP on pro-inflammatory cytokines and microglia activation in brain tissue induced by systemic lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment in C57BL/6 mice. Our results showed that systemic LPS treatment induced microglia activation in the brain. L-NBP treatment significantly suppressed the expression of proinflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNFα), interlukin-1β (IL-1β), interlukin-6 (IL-6), and interlukin-10 (IL-10) in LPS-treated mice. At the meantime, L-NBP treatment decreased the morphological activation of microglia. In addition, the phosphorylation level of JNK MAP kinase-signaling pathway was also inhibited by L-NBP in LPS-treated mice. Furthermore, L-NBP upregulated the expression of heme oxygenase (HO)-1, a key element in the anti-inflammation and anti-oxidative stress. These results suggested that L-NBP might be a promising candidate in delaying and reversing the progress of neurodegenerative diseases by inhibiting microglia activation.

Celery Seed and Related Extracts with Antiarthritic, Antiulcer, and Antimicrobial Activities

Celery preparations have been used extensively for several millennia as natural therapies for acute and chronic painful or inflammatory conditions. This chapter reviews some of the biological and chemical properties of various celery preparations that have been used as natural remedies. Many of these have varying activities and product qualities. A fully standardized celery preparation has been prepared known as an alcoholic extract of the seeds of a plant source derived from northern India. This is termed, Celery Seed Extract (CSE) and has been found to be at least as effective as aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen in suppressing arthritis in a model of polyarthritis. CSE can also reduce existing inflammation in rats. CSE has also been shown to provide analgesia in two model systems. CSE, in addition to acting as an analgesic and inflammatory agent, has been shown to protect against and/or reduce gastric irritation caused by NSAIDs, as well as act synergistically with them to reduce inflammation. The CSE was fractionated by organic solvent extractions, then subjected to column chromatography followed by HPLC and was characterized by mass spectrometry. This yielded a purified component that had specific inhibitory effects on Helicobacter pylori but was not active against Campylobacter jejuni or Escherichia coli. Additionally, toxicology studies did not reveal any clear signs of toxicity at doses relevant to human use. Also, unlike many dietary supplements, the available data suggest that CSE does not significantly affect the p450 enzyme systems and thus is less likely to alter the metabolism of drugs the individual may be taking. CSE may be a prototype of a natural product that can be used therapeutically to treat arthritis and other inflammatory diseases.