Unusual sources of proteins for man

Toxicological evaluation of protein powder derived from Cupriavidus necator

Microorganisms have the potential to produce nutrient-rich products that can be consumed as food or feed. The protein-rich powder derived from heat treatment of the whole-cell biomass of polyhydroxybutyrate-deficient Cupriavidus necator, a metabolically versatile organism that uses elements found in the air, is an example of such a product. To assess the safety of the protein powder for use as a nutritional ingredient in human food, in accordance with internationally accepted standards, its genotoxic potential and repeated-dose oral toxicity were investigated. A bacterial reverse mutation test, an in vitro mammalian chromosomal aberration test, and an in vivo mammalian micronucleus test were performed. No evidence of mutagenicity or genotoxicity was found. Additionally, a 90-day repeated-dose oral toxicity study in rats was completed, in which a total of 100 male and female Wistar rats were exposed by gavage to daily doses of 1000, 2000, or 3000 mg/kg bw/day of the test material. Following 90 days of continuous exposure, no mortality or treatment-related adverse effects were observed and no target organs were identified. Therefore, a no observed adverse effect level was determined at 3000 mg/kg bw/day, the highest dose tested.

Spatial variation in the stable isotopes of 13C and 15N and trophic position of Leporinus friderici (Characiformes, Anostomidae) in Corumbá Reservoir, Brazil

Stable isotopes of carbon (delta13C) and nitrogen (delta15N) were used to describe sources of energy and trophic position for adult Leporinus friderici in the area of the Corumbá Reservoir, Brazil. Samples were collected from April 1999 to March 2000. Spatial variations were not identified in the isotopic composition. The maximum and minimum contribution of C4 plants calculated integrating the variation of plants and fish were 47.7% and 2.4%, respectively. Among C3 plants, periphyton presented closer isotopic values to those observed for fishes, corresponding to an important carbon source. The proportion of ingested plant item is larger in rivers upstream from the reservoir (42.7%), which justifies the smaller trophic level among there. However, in the reservoir, the ingestion of fish was 81.4%, while ingested plants contributed with 18.6%. Downstream from the dam, participation of plant item was even smaller (14.4%). Although the trophic position calculated with diet data was proportional to the one calculated with delta15N values, the former elevated the trophic level of L. friderici in the food web, because estimated trophic positions were based on fish items belonging to the 2nd (a) and to the 3rd (b) trophic levels.

Supercritical fluid extraction and characterization of lipids from algae Scenedesmus obliquus

Supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) extractions (with and without ethanol as an entrainer) were carried out to remove lipids and pigments from protein concentrate of green algae (Scenedesmus obliquus) cultivated under controlled conditions. The content and fatty acid composition of algal lipids using column, thin-layer (TLC) and gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) were determined. Absorption spectra of extracted fractions showed the predominance of chlorophyll A (lambda max at 410 nm). Single step supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) extraction resulted mostly in removal of neutral lipids and a part of glycolipids, but phospholipids were not extracted. Addition of ethanol to SC-CO2 increased the amount of glycolipids and phospholipids in the extract. TLC pattern of algal lipids showed that the main part of neutral lipids consisted of diglycerides, triglycerides, hydrocarbons, free sterols, and sterol esters. The glycolipids were mostly monogalactosyl diglyceride, digalactosyl diglyceride, esterified sterol glycoside, and sterol glycoside. In phospholipids, phosphatidyl choline, phosphatidyl glycerol, and phosphatidyl ethanolamine were the main compounds. Fatty acid composition patterns indicated the main fatty acids to be 16:0, 16:1, 16:2, 16:3, 16:4, 18:1, 18:2, and 18:3(a). Relatively high recovery of polyunsaturated fatty acids and essential fatty acids in supercritical fluid extracted algal lipids and proteins isolates were observed.

Growing crops for space explorers on the moon, Mars, or in space

An option in the long-duration exploration of space, whether on the Moon or Mars or in a spacecraft on its way to Mars or the asteroids, is to utilize a bioregenerative life-support system in addition to the physicochemical systems that will always be necessary. Green plants can use the energy of light to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and add oxygen to it while at the same time synthesizing food for the space travelers. The water that crop plants transpire can be condensed in pure form, contributing to the water purification system. An added bonus is that green plants provide a familiar environment for humans far from their home planet. The down side is that such a bioregenerative life-support system--called a controlled environment life-support system (CELSS) in this paper--must be highly complex and relatively massive to maintain a proper composition of the atmosphere while also providing food. Thus, launch costs will be high. Except for resupply and removal of nonrecycleable substances, such a system is nearly closed with respect to matter but open with respect to energy. Although a CELSS facility is small compared to the Earth's biosphere, it must be large enough to feed humans and provide a suitable atmosphere for them. A functioning CELSS can only be created with the help of today's advanced technology, especially computerized controls. Needed are energy for light, possibly from a nuclear power plant, and equipment to provide a suitable environment for plant growth, including a way to supply plants with the necessary mineral nutrients. All this constitutes the biomass production unit. There must also be food preparation facilities and a means to recycle or dispose of waste materials and there must be control equipment to keep the facility running. Humans are part of the system as well as plants and possibly animals. Human brain power will often be needed to keep the system functional in spite of the best computer-driven controls. The particulars of a CELSS facility depend strongly on where it is to be located. The presence of gravity on the Moon and Mars simplifies the design for a facility on those bodies, but a spacecraft in microgravity is a much more challenging environment. One problem is that plants, which are very sensitive to gravity, might not grow and produce food in the virtual absence of gravity. However, the experience with growing super-dwarf wheat in the Russian space station Mir, while not entirely successful because of the sterile wheat heads, was highly encouraging. The plants grew well for 123 days, producing more biomass than had been produced in space before. This was due to the high photon flux available to the plants and the careful control of substrate moisture. The sterile heads were probably due to the failure to remove the gaseous plant hormone, ethylene, from the Mir atmosphere. Since ethylene can easily be removed, it should be possible to grow wheat and other crops in microgravity with the production of viable seeds. On the ground Biosphere-2 taught us several lessons about the design and construction of a CELSS facility, but Bios-3 came much closer to achieving the goals of such a facility. Although stability was never completely reached, Bios-3 was much more stable than Biosphere-2 apparently because every effort was made to keep the system simple and to use the best technology available to maintain control. Wastes were not recycled in Bios-3 except for urine, and inedible plant materials were incinerated to restore CO2 to the atmosphere. Since much meat (about 20% of calories) was imported, closure in the Bios-3 experiments was well below 100%. But then, a practical CELSS on the Moon might also depend on regular resupply from Earth. Several important lessons have been learned from the CELSS research described in this review.

DNase activity of micrococcal endonuclease insolubilized on corn cob

The endonuclease from S. aureus has been immobilized on ground maize cob, previously activated with tosyl chloride. Pretreatment of the support on acid before tosylation yielded the best insoluble enzyme derivatives. The catalytic activity has been evaluated as percent of total hydrolysis attained in a batch reactor using DNA as a model substrate. The derivatives prepared are very resistant to high temperatures under conditions of catalysis (24 h at 45 degrees C). For these long reaction times, the extent of hydrolysis in the presence of small amounts of organic solvent (dimethyl sulfoxide at 2 percent) is larger than in plain buffer (Tris). This type of derivative could be very useful for the removal of nucleic acids from single-cell protein concentrates.

Non-conventional approaches to food processing in CELSS. I--Algal proteins; characterization and process optimization

Protein isolate obtained from green algae (Scenedesmus obliquus) cultivated under controlled conditions was characterized. Molecular weight determination of fractionated algal proteins using SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis revealed a wide spectrum of molecular weights ranging from 15,000 to 220,000. Isoelectric points of dissociated proteins were in the range of 3.95 to 6.20. Amino acid composition of protein isolate compared favorably with FAO standards. High content of essential amino acids leucine, valine, phenylalanine and lysine makes algal protein isolate a high quality component of CELSS diets. To optimize the removal of algal lipids and pigments supercritical carbon dioxide extraction (with and without ethanol as a co-solvent) was used. Addition of ethanol to supercritical CO2 resulted in more efficient removal of algal lipids and produced protein isolate with a good yield and protein recovery. The protein isolate extracted by the above mixture had an improved water solubility.

[Comparative effect of a single or continuous administration of "Saccharomyces boulardii" on the establishment of various strains of "candida" in the digestive tract of gnotobiotic mice]

Saccharomyces boulardii became established in the digestive tract of monoxenic mice; the number of viable cells ranged around 10(7.5) per gram faeces. This yeast was drastically eliminated from the digestive tract of gnotoxenic mice harbouring a complex flora of human origin. In monoxenic mice harbouring S. boulardii, Candida albicans became established at a level equivalent to that observed in monoxenic mice harbouring C. albicans alone. If gnotoxenic mice received a concentrated suspension of viable S. boulardii cells so as to steadily maintain a population level close to 10(9) viable cells, C. albicans then became established at a level 10 to 50 times lower than that reached by the yeast strain alone. The antagonistic effect exerted in vivo by S. boulardii was preventive and curative. It was active against C. albicans, C. krusei and C. pseudotropicalis strains, but ineffective against C. tropicalis. This antagonistic effect disappeared when S. boulardii cells were killed by heating.

Algal single cell protein production from sewage effluent with high salinity

Laboratory studies indicate that the unicellular green alga Chlorella salina CU-1 could be cultivated in treated sewage effluent with high salinity. The high protein content (51% dry weight), and the relatively complete amino acid profile of the cells, suggest that this alga might be an ideal organism to be used for single cell protein production from high-salinity sewage.