Effect of different drying treatments on essential oil yield, composition and color characteristics ofKelussia odoratissimaMozaff

Genetic variation and structure of endemic and endangered wild celery (Kelussia odoratissima Mozaff.) quantified using novel microsatellite markers developed by next-generation sequencing

Kelussia odoratissima Mozaff. (Apiaceae) is a native plant that has been traditionally consumed in Iran's food and pharmaceutical industries. Overharvesting of the taxon, especially at the beginning of the growing season, due to its considerable medicinal and economic value, is believed to be the main reason for the extirpating of this plant. The consequences of the severe anthropogenic impacts on the genetic diversity of populations are poorly known. In order to investigate the level of genetic variation and patterns of the genetic structure of K. odoratissima, we developed novel microsatellite markers using the 454 Roche next-generation sequencing (NGS) platform for the first time. Out of 1,165 microsatellite markers bioinformatically confirmed, twenty-five were tested, of which 23 were used to screen genetic variation across 12 natural populations. Our results showed that the average number of alleles per locus and the polymorphic information content (PIC) were 10.87 (range 7 to 27), and 0.81 (range 0.67 to 0.94), respectively. The mean observed and expected heterozygosities (± SD) across all populations were 0.80 ± 0.31 and 0.72 ± 0.14, respectively. The average pairwise FST among the populations was 0.37 (range 0.04 to 0.81). Bayesian and distance-based clustering, and principal coordinate analyses revealed at least four major genetic clusters. Although high level of structure can be explained by landscape topography and geographic distance, presence of admixed populations can be associated to seed or pollen dispersal. Contrary to expectations, the high level of genetic variation and lack of inbreeding suggest that overexploitation has not yet significantly purged the allelic variability within the natural populations in protected areas.

Chemical Investigations in Kelussia odoratissima Mozaff. Leaves Based on Comprehensive Analytical Methods: LC-MS, SPME, and GC-MS Analyses

Kelussia odoratissima Mozaff. is a species of Apiaceae endemic to the Zagros Mountains in Iran. In the present investigation, for the first time, the polyphenolic compounds and flavonoids of its leaves were determined by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). As a result, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, acetyl phloroglucinol, vanillic acid, m-coumaric acid, and 4-methylsiringol were determined as the main phenolic compounds, while 3-hydroxyflavone, flavone, quercetin, rutin, neohesperidin, polydatin, and diosmin were the main flavonoid components, of which chlorogenic acid (303.08 µL/gDW), neohesperidin (38.37 µL/gDw), and diosmin (28.62 µL/gDW) were the most abundant. Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) was also used to determine the chemical compounds. Based on SPME, (Z)-undec-6-en-2-one (17.48%) and (Z)-butylidenephthalide (4.348%) were the major components. Based on GC-MS analyses, (Z)-ligustilide was the main compound; however, some new compounds were also determined, including 3-ethylisobenzofuran-1 (3H)-one, (E)-ligugustilide, and E-n-butylidene phthalide. Also, for the first time, we have identified EOs ethyl and isobutyl phthalides on the basis of the obtained EI-MS spectra. Finally, the fragmentation of phthalides is also discussed in this research.

The comparative perspective of phytochemistry and biological properties of the Apiaceae family plants

Despite the availability of numerous reports on the discovery of medicinal plant compounds and their properties, one may encounter contradictory results released by these reports at the level of plant families and even within species. To establish an accurate perspective of the Apiaceae family, this study examined the fruit essential oil and methanolic extract of wild and common species of this family. According to the measurement of the antioxidant property in the methanolic extract of the fruits using the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method, Ferula gummosa, Pimpinella anisum and Cuminum cyminum have high power in inhibiting free radicals. However, Bunium persicum had the strongest DPPH radicals inhibitory potential among all essential oils. The results of antimicrobial tests and their classification analysis showed that C. cyminum and B. persicum fruit essential oil with a high amount of cuminaldehyde had the most antibacterial properties. At the same time, the antifungal properties of H. persicum essential oil (rich in aliphatic ester) were stronger than those of the all the studied plants. Also, the essential oils of F. gummosa and Kelussia odoratissima had favourable antimicrobial properties compared to other studied plants. The investigation of the bacterial structure by scanning electron microscope confirmed the effect of the applied essential oils dose and their antibacterial potential. In general, for the first time, this paper determined the biological values of the fruit essential oil of some wild plants, such as K. odoratissima and H. persicum. Besides, in vitro examination and the mathematical models provided a suitable classification, which makes a comprehensive view in terms of the properties of the Apiaceae family.

Edible Wild Vegetables Urtica dioica L. and Aegopodium podagraria L.-Antioxidants Affected by Processing

Urtica dioica L. and Aegopodium podagraria L., also known as stinging nettle and ground elder, are edible wild green vegetables rich in bioactive and antioxidant polyphenols, vitamins, and minerals. Antioxidant activity assays (TEAC-, DPPH-, and TPC-assay) in combination with HPLC measurements, to qualify and quantify their chemical compositions, were used. Firstly, the drying methods affected the antioxidant activity of further processing stages, and outcomes were dependent on the species. Secondly, cooking increased the antioxidant activity due to higher concentrations of bioactive compounds, and released bound compounds through the rupture of cell structures. Furthermore, fridge storage (3 days at 7 °C) resulted in the lowest antioxidant activity, compared to freezer storage (30 days at -20 °C). Added 5-caffeoylquinic acid (0.3 mM) led to an increased antioxidant activity, most noticeably in freeze-dried samples. Synergistic effects of 5-caffeoylquinic acid were primary found in freeze-dried samples, analyzed fresh or after storage in the fridge. Metal-chelates can lower the antioxidant activity in plant matrices. Edible wild green vegetables are rich in polyphenols and processing can even increase their concentrations to boost the potential health effects. In general, selected quantified phenolics are not solely responsible for the antioxidant activity; minerals, processing, and interactions in plant matrices also contribute decisively.

Effect of Different Climatic Regions and Seasonal Variation on the Antibacterial and Antifungal Activity, and Chemical Profile of Helichrysum aureonitens Sch. Bip

Native South Africans make use of Helichrysum aureonitens Sch. Bip. extracts for the treatment of a variety of infections and they are important in traditional medicinal preparations. This study investigated the effect of seasonal variation and geographical location on the antibacterial and antifungal activities of H. aureonitens. Material was collected in two different seasons: early spring, with high rainfall and high temperatures (October), and late autumn, with low rainfall and lower temperatures (May). Further analysis was carried out using ¹H-NMR based metabolomics to analyse and compare the chemical profiles of the plants in both seasons and locations. Plant materials were collected from two sites for each season, at Wakefield farm (KwaZulu-Natal), representing a colder, wetter environment, and Telperion (Mpumalanga), representing a drier and warmer environment. Leaves of H. aureonitens were tested against bacteria (Proteus vulgaris (P. vulgaris) and Bacillus subtilis (B. subtilis)) as well as fungi (Aspergillus flavus (A. flavus), Aspergillus nomius (A. nomius), Cladosporium cladosporioides (C. cladosporioides), Fusarium oxysporum (F. oxysporum) and Penicillum halotolerans (P. halotolerans)). Extracts from the October harvest showed significant activities against the Gram-negative bacterium P. vulgaris compared to the May harvest, with an MIC value of 62.5 µg/mL. Similar activity was observed between the extracts from the wet season across the two geographically different locations. There was generally very good antifungal activity observed for all the species, with the exception of A. nomius, which had MIC values ranging from 0.39–1.56 µg/mL. Extracts of plant materials harvested in the wetter region had a significantly higher activity against A. flavus and F. oxysporum in both seasons than those from plants harvested in the drier region. Telperion-harvested plants exhibited better activity against F. oxysporum in the autumn. Hydrogen-1 NMR metabolomic analysis confirmed the significant effects of the seasons and the peculiar climates of different localities on the secondary metabolite profile of H. aureonitens.

Comparison between Quality Traits of Solar-Dried and Freeze-Dried Origanum syriacum L. (Za'atar)

There is growing interest in Origanum syriacum due to attractive culinary applications and functional properties. Solar drying is the most common conventional method for drying Origanum syriacum L. (Za’atar) in Mediterranean region. This study aimed to evaluate the quality traits of solar dried za’atar in comparison to freeze dried za’atar. Proximate composition (moisture, protein, fat, fiber, carbohydrates, and ash), color index (L*a*b*), macro and microstructure, sensory, and microbiological characteristics were evaluated. Solar dried za’atar exhibited significantly lower fat content (1.10 vs. 1.64%, p < 0.05) than freeze dried za’atar. Solar drying led to severe changes in color values compared to freeze drying. Solar drying exhibited loss in the structural integrity and leave hairs more than freeze drying. Moreover, freeze-dried za’atar exhibited significantly lower total aerobic count (4.92 vs. 5.23, p < 0.05) and yeasts and mold count (4.59 vs. 5.36, p < 0.05) than solar-dried za’atar. Panelists were able significantly to differentiate between solar- and freeze dried za’atar. Freeze-dried za’atar had significantly lower hedonic score of color, odor, taste, and overall acceptance than solar dried za’atar. In conclusion, using freeze drying achieved good improvements in some quality traits for za’atar while solar dried za’atar showed better sensory perception.

A comparative study: Influence of various drying methods on essential oil components and biological properties of Stachys lavandulifolia

The genus Stachys is a member of the Lamiaceae family. These are important medicinal plants which grow all over the world and are known for their flavoring and therapeutic effects and Stachys lavandulifolia is an endemic species of Iran. To acquire high-quality essential oil (EO), drying technique was implemented which is an essential part of this process. The present study designed to evaluate the influences of different drying techniques (fresh sample, shade, sunlight, freeze-drying, microwave, and oven-drying (40, 60, and 80°C) on EO yield and composition of S. lavandulifolia. The results indicated that the maximum EO yield was obtained by the shade-drying method. The main compounds found in the fresh samples were spathulenol, myrcene, β-pinene, δ-cadinene, and α-muurolol, while spathulenol, cyrene, δ-cadinene, p-cymene, decane, α-terpinene, β-pinene, and intermedeol were found to be the dominant compounds in the dry samples. Drying techniques were found to have a significant impact on the values of the main compositions, for example, monoterpene hydrocarbons such as α-pinene, β-pinene, myrcene, and β-phellandrene were significantly reduced by microwave drying, oven-drying (40, 60, and 80°C), and sunlight-drying methods. Drying techniques increased the antioxidant activity of S. lavandulifolia EOs especially those acquired by freeze-drying with the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values 101.8 ± 0.8 mg/ml in DPPH assay and 315.2 ± 2.1 mg/ml in decreasing power assay. As a result, shade-, sun-, and oven-drying (40°C) were found to be the most important techniques for attaining maximum yields of EO.

Differences in the Aroma Profile of Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) after Different Drying Conditions

This experiment was conducted to examine the influence of drying methods on the essential oil of chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) and its chemical composition. Chamomile flower heads were dried using five different methods: sunlight for 72 h; shade for 1 week; oven at 40 °C for 72 h; solar dryer for 72 h; and microwave for 5 min. Drying methods had slight and nonsignificant impacts on dry biomass of flower heads. The highest percentages of oil in flowers (0.35–0.50%) were observed after solar-drying methods, and the lowest percentage of oil was found after microwave drying (0.24–0.33%). Drying methods significantly influenced the number of identified compounds. The maximum was identified after solar drying (21 compounds), while the lowest was identified after microwave drying (13 compounds), which revealed the solar ability to preserve compounds in contrast to microwave, which crushed the compounds. Major compounds were α-bisabolol oxide A (33.0–50.5%), (Z)-tonghaosu (10.0–18.7%), α-bisabolol oxide B (8.2–15.4%), α-bisabolone oxide A (5.4–14.6%), and chamazulene (1.9–5.2%) of essential oil. Drying methods clearly affected major compounds’ content as the lowest α-bisabolol oxide A was after sun drying, and the lowest α-bisabolol oxide B was after solar drying. (Z)-tonghaosu increased during drying compared to fresh flowers. Solar drying maintained higher chamazulene content (3.0%) compared to other drying methods. The results of this study suggest that drying under the shady conditions preserved chemical composition of essential oil with higher α-bisabolol content compared to other drying methods.