Zataria multiflora: chemical and biological diversity in the essential oil

Co-encapsulation of Shirazi thyme (Zataria multiflora) essential oil and nisin using caffeic acid grafted chitosan nanogel and the effect of this nanogel as a bio-preservative in Iranian white cheese

The current study aims to co-encapsulate Shirazi thyme (Zataria multiflora) essential oil (ZEO) and nisin into chitosan nanogel as an antimicrobial and antioxidant agent to enhance the shelf-life of cheese. Chitosan-caffeic acid (CS-CA) nanogel was produced to co-encapsulate Zataria multiflora essential oil and nisin. This nanogel was characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopic analysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images. The effect of free (TFZN) and encapsulated ZEO-nisin in chitosan nanogel (TCZN) on the chemical and microbiological properties of Iranian white cheese was assessed. The particle size, polydispersity index value (PDI), zeta potential, antioxidant activity, and encapsulation efficiency of the optimal chitosan-ZEO-nisin nanogel were 421.6 nm, 0.343, 34.0 mV, 71.06%-82.69%, and 41.3 ± 0.5%, 0.79 ± 0.06 mg/mL. respectively. FTIR and XRD approved ZEO and nisin entrapment within chitosan nanogel. The chitosan nanogel showed a highly porous surface with an irregular shape. The bioactive compounds of ZEO and nisin decreased the pH changes in cheese. On the 60th day of storage, the acidity of treated samples was significantly lower than that of control. Although the lowest anisidine index value was observed in samples treated with sodium nitrate (NaNO3) (TS), there was no significant difference between this sample and TCZN. The lowest microbial population was observed in TCZN and TS. After 60 days of ripening, Coliforms were not detected in the culture medium of TCZN and TS. The results can contribute to the development of a natural preservative with the potential for application in the dairy industry.

Encapsulation of Zataria multiflora essential oil in polyvinyl alcohol/chitosan/gelatin thermo-responsive hydrogel: Synthesis, physico-chemical properties, and biological investigations

Zataria multiflora essential oil is a natural volatile plant product whose therapeutic applications require a delivery platform. Biomaterial-based hydrogels have been extensively used in biomedical applications, and they are promising platforms to encapsulate essential oils. Among different hydrogels, intelligent hydrogels have recently attracted many interests because of their response to environmental stimuli such as temperature. Herein, Zataria multiflora essential oil is encapsulated in a polyvinyl alcohol/chitosan/gelatin hydrogel as a positive thermo-responsive and antifungal platform. According to the optical microscopic image, the encapsulated spherical essential oil droplets reveal a mean size of 1.10 ± 0.64 μm, which are in consistent with the SEM imaging results. Encapsulation efficacy and loading capacity are 98.66 % and 12.98 %, respectively. These results confirm the successful efficient encapsulation of the Zataria multiflora essential oil within the hydrogel. The chemical compositions of the Zataria multiflora essential oil and the fabricated hydrogel are analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) techniques. It is found that thymol (44.30 %) and γ-terpinene (22.62 %) are the main constituents of the Zataria multiflora essential oil. The produced hydrogel inhibits the metabolic activity of Candida albicans biofilms (~60-80 %), which can be related to the antifungal activity of the essential oil constituents and chitosan. Based on the rheological results, the produced thermo-responsive hydrogel shows a gel-sol viscoelastic transition at a temperature of 24.5 °C. This transition leads to a facile release of the loaded essential oil. The release test depicts that about 30 % of Zataria multiflora essential oil is released during the first 16 min. In addition, 2, 5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay demonstrates that the designed thermo-sensitive formulation is biocompatible with high cell viability (over 96 %). The fabricated hydrogel can be deemed as a potential intelligent drug delivery platform for controlling cutaneous candidiasis due to antifungal effectiveness and less toxicity, which can be a promising alternative to traditional drug delivery systems.

The Effects of Zataria multiflora Cream on Split-Thickness Skin Graft Donor-Site Management: A Randomized, Blinded, Placebo-Controlled Study

Purpose: The wound healing process involves a complex series of biological events. Skin grafts have several uses as a reconstructive method. There are several dressings for the skin graft donor site, but the optimum dressing agents that provide all the requirements at the same time are unclear. This prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial aimed to evaluate the therapeutic effect of Zataria multiflora cream in the wound healing process of partial-thickness skin graft donor sites and compared it with a placebo. Materials and Methods: This clinical trial study was performed on patients who underwent split-thickness skin grafts. Enrolled patients applied Z. multiflora cream and placebo controlled (petrolatum ointment) twice a day, from the day of intervention at the skin graft donor sites in two parts, separately. On 7, 14, 21, and 28 days after surgery, the wound healing process was evaluated, photographed, and scored according to the Bates-Jensen assessment tool. Evidence of infection was evaluated. The main agent and placebo were compared during the wound healing process. Results: Decreases in wound surface area and total score were significantly greater in the Z. multiflora group (p < 0.05). The wounds of 30% of patients in the second week and 90% of patients in the third week were completely epithelialized in the Z. multiflora group. These values were 3.3% and 36.7% for the control group, respectively, and so, the healing rate was ∼9-fold in the second week and 2.45-fold in the third week in the Z. multiflora group compared with the control group (p < 0.05). Conclusion: Wound healing and reepithelialization accelerated significantly in the first, second, third, and fourth week after intervention in the Z. multiflora treatment group, due to modulating the inflammatory phase and improving the proliferative phase. Clinical Trial Registration Number: IRCT20210624051695N1.

Apple pectin-based Zataria multiflora essential oil (ZEO) nanoemulsion: An approach to enhance ZEO DNA damage induction in breast cancer cells as in vitro and in silico studies reveal

Zataria multiflora essential oil (ZEO) is a natural complex of compounds with a high apoptotic potential against breast cancer cells and minor toxicity toward normal cells; however, similar to many essential oils, ZEO utilization in pharmaceutical industries has limitations due to its labile and sensitive ingredients. Nanoemulsification based on natural polymers is one approach to overcome this issue. In this study, an apple pectin-ZEO nanoemulsion (AP-ZEONE) was prepared and its morphology, FTIR spectra, and physical properties were characterized. Furthermore, it was shown that AP-ZEONE substantially suppresses the viability of MDA-MB-231, T47D, and MCF-7 breast cancer cells. AP-ZEONE significantly induced apoptotic morphological alterations and DNA fragmentation as confirmed by fluorescent staining and TUNEL assay. Moreover, AP-ZEONE induced apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 cells by loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) associated with the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), G2/M cell cycle arrest, and DNA strand breakage as flow cytometry, DNA oxidation, and comet assay analysis revealed, respectively. Spectroscopic and computational studies also confirmed that AP-ZEONE interacts with genomic DNA in a minor groove/partial intercalation binding mode. This study demonstrated the successful inhibitory effect of AP-ZEONE on metastatic breast cancer cells, which may be beneficial in the therapy process.

Cytotoxic effects of chitosan nanoparticles containing Zataria multiflora essential oil against human breast and melanoma cells

Background

Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women, and melanoma incidence increases worldwide. The emergence of drug resistance and side effects of chemotherapy drugs has led to a great deal of attention being paid to the development of natural medicines, especially using essential oil. The preparation of essential oil-based nanoformulation has thus recently received more attention.

Results

In this study, chitosan nanoparticles (ChiNPs) containing Zataria multiflora essential oil with a particle size of 177 ± 10 nm, a narrow particle size distribution (SPAN 0.96), and a cubic-like shape were first prepared. IC50 values of the prepared nanoformulation against human melanoma (A-375) and breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-468) were obtained as 32 (12–84), 46 (32–67), and 105 (85–131) µg/mL. Besides, an electrospun polycaprolactone–polyethylene oxide scaffold was prepared as a dressing after treatment with the nanoformulation. Fourier transform infrared analysis confirmed the scaffold's preparation as well as successful loading of the essential oil in chitosan nanoparticles. Furthermore, the scaffold did not show a cytotoxic effect on A-375, MCF-7, and MDA-MB-468, and its surface was hydrophobic as the water contact angle with the surface was 136.5°.

Conclusions

The prepared prototype with natural ingredients and high efficacy could be considered for further consideration in vivo study or complementary medicine.

Graphical abstract

Antifungal Properties of Zataria multiflora on Candida species: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Candida infections have increased significantly in the antimicrobial resistance era, and synthetic antifungal drugs have limitations. The present work aimed to review the antifungal properties of Zataria multiflora (Z. multiflora) as an herbal remedy.

METHOD

PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, SID, Civilica, and Magiran databases were searched for the antifungal activity on in vitro, in vivo, dental biofilm, and clinical studies of Z. multiflora on Candida species.

RESULTS

Overall, 33 articles evaluated the effect of Z. multiflora on Candida species and classified them into four groups, as follows in vitro (23), dental biofilm (6), in vivo (2), and clinical studies (3). All studies considered Z. multiflora effective in reducing or even inhibiting the growth of Candida species. NoMFC significant differences were seen in the effect of Z. multiflora on susceptible Candida compared to the resistant groups of Candida in the studies. It was also influential in inhibiting C. parapsilosis, C. glabrata, C. krusei, C. kefyer, and C. zeylanoides.

CONCLUSION

Considering the side effects and resistance of current antifungal drugs as well as the benefits of using herbal medicines, such as lower cost, less likely to develop drug resistance, the absence of side effects, and toxicity compared with chemical ones, it is possible as a powerful alternative to replace or combine with the current antifungal for Candida infection therapy along with other therapies.

Medicinal Plants with Abortifacient or Emmenagogue Activity: A Narrative Review Based on Traditional Persian Medicine

Introduction: Traditional Persian medicine (TPM) has a rich background and has introduced various plants with abortive or emmenagogue activity since ancient times. However, many of them are unknown in modern medicine, and a few trials have been conducted describing their efficacy and safety. These plants may be helpful for the management of incomplete abortion, with potentially lower side effects than chemical agents. Objectives: This review introduced these plants and their potential efficiency to link traditional and modern medicine and suggested further studies. Methods: The search strategy for citations in this narrative review was performed in two steps. At first, medicinal plants used as abortifacient or emmenagogue to manage incomplete abortions or retained products of conception were searched and extracted in the most famous TPM literature, including Al-Qanun Fi at-Tibb, Tuhfat-al-Momenin, and Makhzan-ul-advia. The next step was searching electronic databases including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar with the same keywords and herbal plants between 1970 and 2021. The overlapped plants between the manual and electronic search were found and briefly described. Results: In TPM literature, 88 plants with abortifacient activity were found, of which 47 were used to manage incomplete abortions or retained products of conception. Also, in the electronic database search, 14 plants were found to have abortifacient or emmenagogue activity. Among them, six plants, including Sesamum indicum L. (Sesame), Commiphora myrrha (myrrh), Lawsonia inermis L. (Henna), Opopanax chironium L. (Jooshir), Plumbago rosea (Shitraj or Stumbag), and Juniperus sabina (Abhal), overlapped with the manual search results. The abortifacient or emmenagogue activity and properties of all these 14 plants were described. Conclusions: The properties of many traditional plants with abortifacient activity are unknown in modern medicine; however, they should not be used in pregnant women. Nonetheless, they may have the power to be entered into modern medicine. Identifying their pharmacology and action mechanisms may be helpful to introduce them as a potential alternative to chemical agents in the management of induced or incomplete abortion with possibly lower side effects.

High anticancer efficacy of solid lipid nanoparticles containing Zataria multiflora essential oil against breast cancer and melanoma cell lines

Background

The cancer burden is rising rapidly worldwide, and it annually causes about 8.8 million deaths worldwide. Due to chemical drugs’ side effects and the emergence of resistance, the development of new green drugs has received much attention. We aimed to investigate whether solid-lipid nanoparticles containing essential oil of Zataria multiflora (ZMSLN) enhanced the anticancer efficacy of the essential oil against breast cancer (MDA-MB-468) and melanoma (A-375) cells.

Results

ZMSLN was prepared by the high-pressure homogenizer method; particle size 176 ± 8 nm, polydispersity index 0.22 ± 0.1, entrapment efficiency 67 ± 5%. The essential oil showed a dose-dependent antiproliferative effect on MDA-MB-468 and A-375 cells at all examined concentrations (75, 150, 300, 600, and 1200 μg/mL). Interestingly, after treating both cells with 75 μg/mL of ZMSLN, their viabilities were reduced to under 13%.

Conclusion

The finding showed that ZMSLN had a distinct antiproliferative efficacy; it could thus be considered a green anticancer candidate for further in vivo and in vivo studies.

Principal Metabolites in Extracts of Different Plants Responsible for Antibacterial Effects

The increase in bacterial resistance and decreased effectiveness of antibacterial agents has forced researchers to look for new antibacterial agents from environmentally friendly sources such as essential oils and oil extracts. The functional group of the metabolites present in the essential oils or plant extract and the synergy effects between them play an important role in the biological activity and can be the principal factor affecting the antibacterial effect. All of these bioactive oils showed the same action mechanism, and the best way to implement them is by extracting them without changing their original properties, whereby the characterization and evaluation of the compounds are important steps. All of these themes are extensively reviewed, analyzed, and discussed in this work.

In-vitro, in-vivo, and in-silico assessment of radical scavenging and cytotoxic activities of Oliveria decumbens essential oil and its main components

We aimed to explore and compare new insights on the pharmacological potential of Oliveria decumbence essential oil (OEO) and its main components highlighting their antioxidant activity in-vitro, in-vivo, and in-silico and also cytotoxic effects of OEO against A549 lung cancer cells. At first, based on GC-MS analysis, thymol, carvacrol, p-cymene, and γ-terpinene were introduced as basic ingredients of OEO and their in-vitro antioxidant capacity was considered by standard methods. Collectively, OEO exhibited strong antioxidant properties even more than its components. In LPS-stimulated macrophages treated with OEO, the reduction of ROS (Reactive-oxygen-species) and NO (nitric-oxide) and down-regulation of iNOS (inducible nitric-oxide-synthase) and NOX (NADPH-oxidase) mRNA expression was observed and compared with that of OEO components. According to the results, OEO, thymol, and carvacrol exhibited the highest radical scavenging potency compared to p-cymene, and γ-terpinene. In-silico Molecular-Docking and Molecular-Dynamics simulation indicated that thymol and carvacrol but no p-cymene and γ-terpinene may establish coordinative bonds in iNOS active site and thereby inhibit iNOS. However, they did not show any evidence for NOX inhibition. In the following, MTT assay showed that OEO induces cytotoxicity in A549 cancer cells despite having a limited effect on L929 normal cells. Apoptotic death and its dependence on caspase-3 activity and Bax/Bcl2 ratio in OEO-treated cells were established by fluorescence microscopy, flow cytometry, colorimetric assay, and western blot analysis. Additionally, flow cytometry studies demonstrated increased levels of ROS in OEO-treated cells. Therefore, OEO, despite showing antioxidant properties, induces apoptosis in cancer cells by increasing ROS levels. Collectively, our results provided new insight into the usage of OEO and main components, thymol, and carvacrol, into the development of novel antioxidant and anti-cancer agents.

Antimicrobial Activity and Proposed Action Mechanism of Linalool Against Pseudomonas fluorescens

In this study, linalool, one of the principal components of essential oils, was used as an antibacterial agent to investigate the antibacterial activity and mechanism of linalool against Pseudomonas fluorescens. The reduction in membrane potential (MP), leakage of alkaline phosphatase (AKP) and the release of macromolecules, including DNA, RNA and protein confirmed that damage to cell wall membrane structure and leakage of cytoplasmic contents were due to the linalool treatment. Furthermore, the decrease of enzyme activity, including the succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), malate dehydrogenase (MDH), pyruvate kinase (PK), and ATPase indicated that linalool could lead to metabolic dysfunction and inhibit energy synthesis. In addition, the activity of respiratory chain dehydrogenase and metabolic activity of respiration indicated that linalool inhibits cellular respiration. These results revealed that linalool had strong antibacterial activity against P. fluorescens via membrane damage, bacterial metabolic and oxidative respiratory perturbations, interfering in cellular functions and even causing cell death. It was suggested that linalool may be a new potential source as food antiseptics in food systems.

A Critical Review on the Synthesis of Natural Sodium Alginate Based Composite Materials: An Innovative Biological Polymer for Biomedical Delivery Applications

Sodium alginate (Na-Alg) is water-soluble, neutral, and linear polysaccharide. It is the derivative of alginic acid which comprises 1,4-β-d-mannuronic (M) and α-l-guluronic (G) acids and has the chemical formula (NaC6H7O6). It shows water-soluble, non-toxic, biocompatible, biodegradable, and non-immunogenic properties. It had been used for various biomedical applications, among which the most promising are drug delivery, gene delivery, wound dressing, and wound healing. For different biomedical applications, it is used in different forms with the help of new techniques. That is the reason it had been blended with different polymers. In this review article, we present a comprehensive overview of the combinations of sodium alginate with natural and synthetic polymers and their biomedical applications involving delivery systems. All the scientific/technical issues have been addressed, and we have highlighted the recent advancements.

In vitro antioxidant and antidiabetic activity of essential oils encapsulated in gelatin-pectin particles against sugar, lipid and protein oxidation and amylase and glucosidase activity

The in vitro antioxidant and antidiabetic activities of Oliveria decumbens, Thymus kotschyanus, Trachyspermum ammi, and Zataria multiflora essential oils incorporated into gelatin-pectin composite were investigated. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry characterization revealed that thymol (1.2%-86.4%), carvacrol (3.2%-52.4%), gamma-terpinene (0.0%-12.7%), para-cymene (3.2%-5.2%), geraniol (0.0%-14.5%), and spathulenol (0.0%-13.6%) are the major constituents of the essential oils. Gelatin-pectin composite incorporated with the essential oils exhibited acidic pH (2.40-3.04), low conductivity (265-278 µS/cm), low surface tension (19.0-23.5 mN/m), low Newtonian viscosity (23.7-28.5 mPa.s), negative zeta-potential (14.2-16.9 mV), and nanoscale particle size (313-336 nm). These rheological properties result in the production of globular gelatin-pectin nanoparticles with a size range of 500-700 nm. The FTIR spectra of gelatin-pectin and gelatin-pectin-essential oils to some extent were similar, suggesting the noncovalent interactions between them. Gelatin-pectin composite incorporated with the essential oils displayed antiglucose oxidation (130-150 µg/ml) antilipid peroxidation (120-130 µg/ml), antiprotein oxidation (150-168 µg/ml), and antiprotein glycation (145-170 µg/ml) as well as antiamylase (216-230 µg/ml), and antiglucosidase (212-238 µg/ml) activity. The essential oils strongly improved the antioxidant capacity of the gelatin-pectin composite so strongly which can be recommended as a natural compound for oxidative stress management.

In vitro and ex vivo anti-diabetic and anti-hyperglycemic properties of Zataria multiflora essential oil

The underlying mechanism involved in the onset of many diseases such as diabetes is oxidative stress. Zataria multiflora has a very high antioxidant power that can be used in the antioxidant therapy of the diabetes symptom. The in vitro antioxidant and anti-diabetic capacity of Zataria multiflora essential oil (ZMEO) incorporated in dendrosome against glucose oxidation, lipid oxidation, protein oxidation, and protein glycation was analyzed. The ex vivo antioxidant capacity of dendrosomal ZMEO were explored against hyperglycemia (HG)-induced oxidative stress. Inhibition of oxidative stress markers; NADH oxidase (NOX), nuclear respiratory factor 2 (NRF2) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) were examined. Dendrosomal-ZMEO displayed low conductivity, low surface tension, low zeta-potential, nanoscale particle size and low viscosity that suggest dendrosomal-ZMEO could remain stable in biological fluids. FTIR spectra of dendrosomal-ZMEO indicated the non-covalent interactions between dendrosome and ZMEO and the entrapment of ZMEO droplets in the dendrosome network. Dendrosomal-ZMEO displayed good anti-glucose oxidation, anti-lipid peroxidation, anti-protein oxidation, and anti-protein glycation activity. Dendrosomal ZMEO strongly reduced intracellular hydrogen peroxide and NOX expression and activity in HG-treated macrophages while increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) expression and activity in a synergistic manner. HG-treated murine macrophages showed an increased level of NF-kB expression while the decreased level of NRF2 expression compared to controls. The anti-diabetic activity of ZMEO by sequestering hydrogen peroxide and down-regulation of NOX activity is a recommended mechanism for diabetes and oxidative stress. The effect of ZMEO on decreasing NF-kB and increasing in NRF2, transcription factors involved in oxidative stress and hyperglycemia, may imply its clinical application.

In-vitro (2D and 3D cultures) and in-vivo cytotoxic properties of Zataria multiflora essential oil (ZEO) emulsion in breast and cervical cancer cells along with the investigation of immunomodulatory potential

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Zataria multiflora is an iranian valuable traditional plants, called Avishan Shirazi in Persian language used to reduce inflammation, spasm, pain, and cancer symptoms. Zataria essential oil (ZEO) is one of the essential oils possessing broad biological activities.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim was to investigate the anticancer effects of ZEO both in-vitro and in-vivo using mouse mammary carcinoma 4T1 cell line and mouse cervical cancer TC1 cell line.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The in-vitro effects of ZEO on the proliferation of these cell lines were considered in 2D and 3D culture by MTT assay. In the following, to indicate death mode, fluorescence staining, AnnexinV/PI flowcytometry and caspase-3 activity assay of monolayer cells treated with ZEO was done. In order to evaluate the antitumor activities of ZEO, tumor-bearing BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice were intraperitoneally administered with ZEO and the immunomodulatory effects of ZEO were considered through cytokine assay. Additionally, hematobiochemical factors including aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase were investigated to confirm the harmless effects of ZEO.

RESULTS

The In-vitro results showed that treatment of cells with ZEO leads to significant inhibition of 4T1 and TC1 cell proliferation and apoptosis in monolayer cell culture (2D) and multicellular spheroids (3D). Based on In-vivo results, ZEO was effective in decreasing the tumor weight compared to the control. Furthermore, ZEO was effective in tilting the balance of cytokines in favor of T helper 1 through the increase in the secretion of TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-2 and decrease in IL-4. During the treatment with ZEO, hematobiochemical factors of mice did not significantly change.

CONCLUSION

the present study demonstrated that the ZEO has potent antiproliferative, apoptosis-inducing and immune system stimulant properties in breast and cervical cancer.

MYB21 interacts with MYC2 to control the expression of terpene synthase genes in flowers of Freesia hybrida and Arabidopsis thaliana

Previously, linalool was found to be the most abundant component among the cocktail of volatiles released from flowers of Freesia hybrida. Linalool formation is catalysed by monoterpene synthase TPS1. However, the regulatory network developmentally modulating the expression of the TPS1 gene in Freesia hybrida remains unexplored. In this study, three regulatory genes, FhMYB21L1, FhMYB21L2, and FhMYC2, were screened from 52 candidates. Two MYB transcription factor genes were synchronously expressed with FhTPS1 and could activate its expression significantly when overexpressed, and the binding of FhMYB21L2 to the MYBCORE sites in the FhTPS1 promoter was further confirmed, indicating a direct role in activation. FhMYC2 showed an inverse expression pattern compared with FhTPS1; its expression led to a decreased binding of FhMYB21 to the FhTPS1 promoter to reduce its activation capacity when co-expressed, suggesting a role for an MYB-bHLH complex in the regulation of the FhTPS1 gene. In Arabidopsis, both MYB21 and MYC2 regulators were shown to activate the expression of sesquiterpene synthase genes, and the regulatory roles of AtMYB21 and AtMYC2 in the expression of the linalool synthase gene were also confirmed, implying conserved functions of the MYB-bHLH complex in these two evolutionarily divergent plants. Moreover, the expression ratio between MYB21 and MYC2 orthologues might be a determinant factor in floral linalool emission.