1
|
Zhang Y, Tian J, Wang C, Wu T, Yi D, Wang L, Zhao D, Hou Y. N-Acetylcysteine Administration Improves the Redox and Functional Gene Expression Levels in Spleen, Mesenteric Lymph Node and Gastrocnemius Muscle in Piglets Infected with Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13020262. [PMID: 36670802 PMCID: PMC9854467 DOI: 10.3390/ani13020262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Our previous study reported that N-acetylcysteine (NAC) administration improved the function of intestinal absorption in piglets infected with porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV). However, the effects of NAC administration on the functions of other tissues and organs in PEDV-infected piglets have not been reported. In this study, the effects of NAC on the liver, spleen, lung, lymph node, and gastrocnemius muscle in PEDV-infected piglets were investigated. Thirty-two 7-day-old piglets with similar body weights were randomly divided into one of four groups: Control group, NAC group, PEDV group, and PEDV+NAC group (eight replicates per group and one pig per replicate). The trial had a 2 × 2 factorial design consisting of oral administration of 0 or 25 mg/kg body weight NAC and oral administration of 0 or 1.0 × 104.5 TCID50 PEDV. The trial lasted 12 days. All piglets were fed a milk replacer. On days 5-9 of the trial, piglets in the NAC and PEDV + NAC groups were orally administered NAC once a day; piglets in the control and PEDV groups were orally administered the same volume of saline. On day 9 of trial, piglets in the PEDV and PEDV+NAC groups were orally administrated 1.0 × 104.5 TCID50 PEDV, and the piglets in the control and NAC groups were orally administrated the same volume of saline. On day 12 of trial, samples, including of the liver, spleen, lung, lymph node, and gastrocnemius muscle, were collected. PEDV infection significantly increased catalase activity but significantly decreased the mRNA levels of Keap1, Nrf2, HMOX2, IFN-α, MX1, IL-10, TNF-α, S100A12, MMP3, MMP13, TGF-β, and GJA1 in the spleens of piglets. NAC administration ameliorated abnormal changes in measured variables in the spleens of PEDV-infected piglets. In addition, NAC administration also enhanced the antioxidant capacity of the mesenteric lymph nodes and gastrocnemius muscles in PEDV-infected piglets. Collectively, these novel results revealed that NAC administration improved the redox and functional gene expression levels in the spleen, mesenteric lymph nodes, and gastrocnemius muscle in PEDV-infected piglets.
Collapse
|
2
|
Wang X, Bao H, Bau T. Investigation of the possible mechanism of polysaccharides extracted from Leucocalocybe mongolica in exerting antitumor effects in H22 tumor-bearing mice. J Food Biochem 2021; 45:e13514. [PMID: 33569819 DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.13514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 09/05/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
A response surface method was used to optimize the extraction of polysaccharides from Leucocalocybe mongolica. Moreover, the preliminary structural characteristics and antitumor activity of L. mongolica polysaccharide (LMP) were investigated. The results showed that the optimized extraction technological parameters for LMP were 93°C extraction temperature, 5 hr extraction time, and 30 ml/g liquid-to-solid ratio. The LMP content extracted under the optimal conditions was 6.64%. LC-MS/MS results indicated that LMP is a neutral polysaccharide composed of d-fructose, d-mannose, dextrose anhydrate, d-xylose, trehalose, and galactose. The tumor inhibition rate was significantly improved by LMP treatment. LMP had minimal toxicity based on the significant decrease in AST and BUN levels; VEGF protein levels were also significantly decreased. In contrast, the levels of IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-6, and TNF-α were improved. The results of ELISA, H&E staining, TUNEL assay, immunohistochemistry, and western blotting indicated that the LMP exhibited antitumor activity in vivo by promoting apoptosis, mediating inflammatory responses, and inhibiting angiogenesis. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: As one of the main bioactive components, fungal polysaccharide has always been a hot research topic. Fungal polysaccharides are carbohydrate polymers composed of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages, which have been found to be involved in many biological processes. In this research, the LMP structure was analyzed, and the immunohistochemical and western blot analysis confirmed that, LMP could effectively reduce the generation of tumor angiogenesis, promote apoptosis of tumor cell sand inhibit tumor growth. The results of this study can effectively provide a basis for clinical research and development of antitumor drugs, and lay a foundation for the study of the antitumor effects of wild edible and medicinal fungi.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Medicinal Fungal Resources and Development and Utilization, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China.,Medical Academy, Changchun Science-Technology University, Changchun, China
| | - Haiying Bao
- Key Laboratory of Medicinal Fungal Resources and Development and Utilization, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China
| | - Tolgor Bau
- Key Laboratory of Medicinal Fungal Resources and Development and Utilization, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zhang Z, Liu D, Hu J, Sun W, Liu K, Li J, Xu H, Liu J, He L, Jiang D, Gu M, Hu S, Wang X, Liu X, Liu X. Multiplex one-step real-time PCR assay for rapid simultaneous detection of velogenic and mesogenic Newcastle disease virus and H5-subtype avian influenza virus. Arch Virol 2019; 164:1111-1119. [PMID: 30790106 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-019-04180-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
H5 avian influenza virus (AIV) and velogenic Newcastle disease virus (v-NDV) are pathogens listed in the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code and are considered key pathogens to be eliminated in poultry production. Molecular techniques for rapid detection of H5 AIV and v-NDV are required to investigate their transmission characteristics and to guide prevention. Traditional virus isolation, using embryonated chicken eggs, is time-consuming and cannot be used as a rapid diagnostic technology. In this study, a multiplex real-time RT-PCR (RRT-PCR) detection method for six H5 AIV clades, three v-NDV subtypes, and one mesogenic NDV subtype was successfully established. The detection limit of our multiplex NDV and H5 AIV RRT-PCR was five copies per reaction for each pathogen, with good linearity and efficiency (y = -3.194x + 38.427 for H5 AIV and y = -3.32x + 38.042 for NDV). Multiplex PCR showed good intra- and inter-assay reproducibility, with coefficient of variance (CV) less than 1%. Furthermore, using the RRT-PCR method, H5 AIV and NDV detection rates in clinical samples were higher overall than those obtained using the traditional virus isolation method. Therefore, our method provides a promising technique for surveillance of various H5 AIV clades and multiple velogenic and mesogenic NDV subtypes in live-poultry markets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhujun Zhang
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China (26116120), Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Dong Liu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China (26116120), Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Jiao Hu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China (26116120), Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Wenqiang Sun
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China (26116120), Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Kaituo Liu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China (26116120), Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Juan Li
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China (26116120), Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Haixu Xu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China (26116120), Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Jing Liu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China (26116120), Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Lihong He
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China (26116120), Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Daxiu Jiang
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China (26116120), Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Min Gu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China (26116120), Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Shunlin Hu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China (26116120), Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoquan Wang
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China (26116120), Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Xiaowen Liu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China (26116120), Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Xiufan Liu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China. .,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China. .,Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China (26116120), Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Shi F, Li J, Ye Z, Yang L, Chen T, Chen X, Ye M. Antitumor effects of melanin from Lachnum YM226 and its derivative in H22 tumor-bearing mice. MEDCHEMCOMM 2018; 9:1059-1068. [PMID: 30108995 PMCID: PMC6072318 DOI: 10.1039/c8md00035b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, we investigated the anti-tumor activities of the intracellular homogeneous melanin (LM) of Lachnum YM226 and its derivative (ALM) on liver cancer using murine H22 hepatocarcinoma model. The results showed that LM and ALM (50 and 200 mg kg-1) could effectively inhibit tumor growth of H22 tumour-bearing mice. The body weight, liver, spleen and thymus indices also improved in the LM and ALM treated groups. Moreover, the levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransaminase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), creatinine (CRE), blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and uric acid (UA) were lowered. Serum cytokines of interleukin-2 (IL-2), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) were increased on LM and ALM administration, while LM and ALM significantly decreased the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) levels. The H&E staining indicated that LM and ALM exhibited antitumor activity in vivo by promoting apoptosis and inhibiting angiogenesis. The anti-tumor effect of ALM was more significant than that of LM for the same dose. In summary, the findings demonstrated that LM and ALM might be promising candidates for the prevention and treatment of HCC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fang Shi
- School of Food Science and Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei 230009 , China . ; ; ; ; Tel: +86 0551 62919368
| | - Jinglei Li
- School of Food Science and Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei 230009 , China . ; ; ; ; Tel: +86 0551 62919368
| | - Ziyang Ye
- School of Food Science and Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei 230009 , China . ; ; ; ; Tel: +86 0551 62919368
| | - Liuqing Yang
- School of Food Science and Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei 230009 , China . ; ; ; ; Tel: +86 0551 62919368
| | - Tingting Chen
- School of Food Science and Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei 230009 , China . ; ; ; ; Tel: +86 0551 62919368
| | - Xue Chen
- School of Food Science and Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei 230009 , China . ; ; ; ; Tel: +86 0551 62919368
| | - Ming Ye
- School of Food Science and Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei 230009 , China . ; ; ; ; Tel: +86 0551 62919368
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Chen LG, Liu YS, Zheng TH, Chen X, Li P, Xiao CX, Ren JL. Therapeutic targeting of liver cancer with a recombinant DNA vaccine containing the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase gene of Newcastle disease virus via apoptotic-dependent pathways. Oncol Lett 2016; 12:3344-3350. [PMID: 27900002 PMCID: PMC5103948 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2016.5114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2015] [Accepted: 08/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A total of ~38.6 million mortalities occur due to liver cancer annually, worldwide. Although a variety of therapeutic methods are available, the efficacy of treatment at present is extremely limited due to an increased risk of malignancy and inherently poor prognosis of liver cancer. Gene therapy is considered a promising option, and has shown notable potential for the comprehensive therapy of liver cancer, in keeping with advances that have been made in the development of cancer molecular biology. The present study aimed to investigate the synergistic effects of the abilities of the hemagglutinin neuraminidase protein of Newcastle disease virus (NDV), the pro-apoptotic factor apoptin from chicken anaemia virus, and the interferon-γ inducer interleukin-18 (IL-18) in antagonizing liver cancer. Therefore, a recombinant DNA plasmid expressing the three exogenous genes, VP3, IL-18 and hemagglutinin neuraminidase (HN), was constructed. Flow cytometry, acridine orange/ethidium bromide staining and analysis of caspase-3 activity were performed in H22 cell lines transfected with the recombinant DNA plasmid. In addition, 6-week-old C57BL/6 mice were used to establish a H22 hepatoma-bearing mouse model. Mice tumor tissue was analyzed by immunohistochemistry and scanning electron microscopy. The results of the present study revealed that the recombinant DNA vaccine containing the VP3, IL-18 and HN genes inhibited cell proliferation and induced autophagy via the mitochondrial pathway in vivo and in vitro.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Li-Gang Chen
- Department of Gastroenterology, Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361004, P.R. China
| | - Yuan-Sheng Liu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361004, P.R. China
| | - Tang-Hui Zheng
- Department of Gastroenterology, Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361004, P.R. China
| | - Xu Chen
- Department of Gastroenterology, Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361004, P.R. China
| | - Ping Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361004, P.R. China
| | - Chuan-Xing Xiao
- Department of Gastroenterology, Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361004, P.R. China
| | - Jian-Lin Ren
- Department of Gastroenterology, Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361004, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Cuadrado-Castano S, Sanchez-Aparicio MT, García-Sastre A, Villar E. The therapeutic effect of death: Newcastle disease virus and its antitumor potential. Virus Res 2015. [PMID: 26221764 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2015.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Programmed cell death is essential to survival of multicellular organisms. Previously restricted to apoptosis, the concept of programmed cell death is now extended to other mechanisms, as programmed necrosis or necroptosis, autophagic cell death, pyroptosis and parthanatos, among others. Viruses have evolved to manipulate and take control over the programmed cell death response, and the infected cell attempts to neutralize viral infections displaying different stress signals and defensive pathways before taking the critical decision of self-destruction. Learning from viruses and their interplay with the host may help us to better understand the complexity of the self-defense death response that when altered might cause disorders as important as cancer. In addition, as the fields of immunotherapy and oncolytic viruses advance as promising novel cancer therapies, the programmed cell death response reemerges as a key point for the success of both therapeutic approaches. In this review we summarize the research of the multimodal cell death response induced by Newcastle disease viruses (NDV), considered nowadays a promising viral oncolytic therapeutic, and how the manipulation of the host programmed cell death response can enhance the NDV antitumor capacity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sara Cuadrado-Castano
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA; Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Maria T Sanchez-Aparicio
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA; Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Adolfo García-Sastre
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA; Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA; Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Disease, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Enrique Villar
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| |
Collapse
|