MiR-199a-3p inhibits the proliferation, migration, and invasion of endothelial cells and retinal pericytes of diabetic retinopathy rats through regulating FGF7 via EGFR/PI3K/AKT pathway

Crosstalk between MiRNAs/lncRNAs and PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in diabetes mellitus: Mechanistic and therapeutic perspectives

Diabetes as a fastest growing diseases worldwide is characterized by elevated blood glucose levels. There's an enormous financial burden associated with this endocrine disorder, with unequal access to health care between developed and developing countries. PI3Ks (phosphoinositide 3-kinases) have been demonstrated to be crucial for glucose homeostasis, and malfunctioning of these molecules can contribute to an increase in glucose serum levels, the main pathophysiological feature of diabetes. Additionally, recent evidence suggests that miRNAs and lncRNAs are reciprocally interacting with this signaling pathway. It is therefore evident that abnormal regulation of miRNAs/lncRNAs in the lncRNAs/miRNAs/PI3K/AKT axis is related to clinicopathological characteristics and plays a crucial role in the regulation of biological processes. It has therefore been attempted in this review to describe the interaction between PI3K/AKT signaling pathway and various miRNAs/lncRNAs and their importance in DM biology. We also presented the clinical applications of PI3K/AKT-related ncRNAs/herbal medicine in patients with DM.

[Role of Fibroblast Growth Factor 7 in Craniomaxillofacial Development]

Craniomaxillofacial development involves a series of highly ordered temporal-spatial cellular differentiation processes in which a variety of cell signaling factors, such as fibroblast growth factors, play important regulatory roles. As a classic fibroblast growth factor, fibroblast growth factor 7 (FGF7) serves a wide range of regulatory functions. Previous studies have demonstrated that FGF7 regulates the proliferation and migration of epithelial cells, protects them, and promotes their repair. Furthermore, recent findings indicate that epithelial cells are not the only ones subjected to the broad and powerful regulatory capacity of FGF7. It has potential effects on skeletal system development as well. In addition, FGF7 plays an important role in the development of craniomaxillofacial organs, such as the palate, the eyes, and the teeth. Nonetheless, the role of FGF7 in oral craniomaxillofacial development needs to be further elucidated. In this paper, we summarized the published research on the role of FGF7 in oral craniomaxillofacial development to demonstrate the overall understanding of FGF7 and its potential functions in oral craniomaxillofacial development.

The role of microRNAs in pathophysiology and diagnostics of metabolic complications in obstructive sleep apnea patients

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is one of the most common sleep disorders, which is characterized by recurrent apneas and/or hypopneas occurring during sleep due to upper airway obstruction. Among a variety of health consequences, OSA patients are particularly susceptible to developing metabolic complications, such as metabolic syndrome and diabetes mellitus type 2. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) as epigenetic modulators are promising particles in both understanding the pathophysiology of OSA and the prediction of OSA complications. This review describes the role of miRNAs in the development of OSA-associated metabolic complications. Moreover, it summarizes the usefulness of miRNAs as biomarkers in predicting the aforementioned OSA complications.

Network pharmacology mechanism of Scutellarin to inhibit RGC pyroptosis in diabetic retinopathy

To investigate the effect of scutellarin (SCU) in diabetic retinopathy (DR) and explore the associated molecular network mechanism. The animal model of DR was established from diabetic mellitus (DM) rats by intraperitoneally injected streptozotocin (STZ) at dosage 55 mg/kg. Meanwhile, SCU was intraperitoneally administrated to protect retina from cell pyroptosis induced by DM, and cell pyroptosis was detected by using HE, Nissl staining, and immunofluorescence recognition. Moreover, the hub gene involving in pyroptosis in DR was screened by bioinformatics and network pharmacology, designated as Venny intersection screen, GO and KEGG analysis, PPI protein interaction, and molecular docking. Lastly, the expressional change of hub genes were validated with experimental detection. Cell pyroptosis of the DR, specifically in retina ganglion cells (RGC), was induced in DM rats; SCU administration results in significant inhibition in the cell pyroptosis in DR. Mechanically, 4084 genes related to DR were screened from GeneCards and OMIM databases, and 120 SCU therapeutic targets were obtained, by using GeneCards, TCMSP with Swiss Target Prediction databases. Moreover, 357 targets related to pyroptosis were found using GenenCards database, and Drug, disease and phenotypic targets were analyzed online using the Draw Venn Diagram website, and 12 cross targets were obtained. Through GO function and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis, 659 BP related items, 7 CC related items, 30 MF related items, and 70 signal pathways were screened out; Of these, eleven proteins screened from cross-target PPI network were subsequently docked with the SCU, and their expressions including caspase-1, IL-1β, IL-18, GSDMD and NLRP3 in RGC indicated by immunofluorescence, and the mRNA expression for caspase-1 in DR indicated by quantitative PCR, were successfully validated. SCU can effectively protect RGC pyroptosis in DR, and underlying mechanisms are involved in the inhibition of caspase-1, GSDMD, NLRP3, IL-1β and IL-18. Our findings therefore provide crucial evidence to support the clinic practice of SCU for the treatment of DR, and explained the underlying molecular network mechanism.

miRNA Signature of Urine Extracellular Vesicles Shows the Involvement of Inflammatory and Apoptotic Processes in Diabetic Chronic Kidney Disease

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to investigate the role of urine-derived extracellular vesicles (uEVs) in diabetic kidney disease (DKD) in patients diagnosed with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).

METHODS

UEVs were characterized by size distribution and microRNA content by next-generation small RNA sequencing and quantitative reverse transcription PCR.

RESULTS

A subset of sixteen miRNAs enriched in T2DM patients with DKD, including hsa-miR-514a-5p, hsa-miR‑451a, hsa-miR-126-3p, hsa-miR-214, or hsa-miR‑503 was identified. Eight miRNAs as hsa-miR-21-3p, hsa-miR-4792, hsa-miR‑375, hsa-miR-1268a, hsa-miR-501-5p, or hsa-miR-582 were downregulated. Prediction of potential target genes and pathway enrichment analysis of the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) confirmed possible functions related to cellular processes such as apoptosis, inflammation, and tissue remodeling, that promote diabetic complications, such as DKD. Among them, hsa-miR-375, hsa-miR-503, and hsa-miR-451a make important contribution. Additionally, downregulated hsa-miR-582-5p has not been reported so far in any diabetes-related pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed the most significant miRNAs in uEVs of patients with T2DM. However, as this is a bioinformatic prediction that we performed based on the putative targets of the identified miRNAs. Thus, further in vitro functional studies are needed to confirm our findings. Knowing the fact that EVs are crucial in transferring miRNAs, there is a great need toto discover their involvement in the pathomechanism of T2DM-related kidney disease.

LncRNA H19 promotes tumor angiogenesis in smokers by targeting anti-angiogenic miRNAs

A key concept in drug discovery is the identification of candidate therapeutic targets such as long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) because of their extensive involvement in neoplasms, and impressionability by smoking. Induced by exposure to cigarette smoke, lncRNA H19 targets and inactivates miR-29, miR-30a, miR-107, miR-140, miR-148b, miR-199a and miR-200, which control the rate of angiogenesis by inhibiting BiP, DLL4, FGF7, HIF1A, HIF1B, HIF2A, PDGFB, PDGFRA, VEGFA, VEGFB, VEGFC, VEGFR1, VEGFR2 and VEGFR3. Nevertheless, these miRNAs are often dysregulated in bladder cancer, breast cancer, colorectal cancer, glioma, gastric adenocarcinoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, meningioma, non-small-cell lung carcinoma, oral squamous cell carcinoma, ovarian cancer, prostate adenocarcinoma and renal cell carcinoma. As such, the present perspective article seeks to establish an evidence-based hypothetical model of how a smoking-related lncRNA known as H19 might aggravate angiogenesis by interfering with miRNAs that would otherwise regulate angiogenesis in a nonsmoking individual.

Noncoding RNAs Are Promising Therapeutic Targets for Diabetic Retinopathy: An Updated Review (2017-2022)

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the most common complication of diabetes. It is also the main cause of blindness caused by multicellular damage involving retinal endothelial cells, ganglial cells, and pigment epithelial cells in adults worldwide. Currently available drugs for DR do not meet the clinical needs; thus, new therapeutic targets are warranted. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), a new type of biomarkers, have attracted increased attention in recent years owing to their crucial role in the occurrence and development of DR. NcRNAs mainly include microRNAs, long noncoding RNAs, and circular RNAs, all of which regulate gene and protein expression, as well as multiple biological processes in DR. NcRNAs, can regulate the damage caused by various retinal cells; abnormal changes in the aqueous humor, exosomes, blood, tears, and the formation of new blood vessels. This study reviews the different sources of the three ncRNAs-microRNAs, long noncoding RNAs, and circular RNAs-involved in the pathogenesis of DR and the related drug development progress. Overall, this review improves our understanding of the role of ncRNAs in various retinal cells and offers therapeutic directions and targets for DR treatment.

Bta-miR-199a-3p Inhibits LPS-Induced Inflammation in Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells via the PI3K/AKT/NF-κB Signaling Pathway

Mastitis is characterized by inflammatory damage to mammary gland tissue, which could decline milk production and quality and significantly affect the economic benefits of ranching. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), such as miR-199a-3p, are novel therapeutic targets in inflammation, and their regulation is an effective strategy for inflammation control. Despite its importance in humans and animals, the molecular mechanism of bovine miR-199a-3p (bta-miR-199a-3p) in dairy cow mastitis and bovine mammary epithelial cell (bMEC) inflammation is unclear. In our study, a bovine mammary epithelial cell line (MAC-T) induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was used as an inflammatory cell model to investigate the molecular mechanism of bta-miR-199a-3p in the MAC-T inflammatory response. bta-miR-199a-3p was up-regulated in the LPS-induced MAC-T cells, while CD2-associated protein (CD2AP) was revealed as its target gene in a double luciferase reporter gene experiment. In addition, the overexpression of bta-miR-199a-3p negatively regulated the expression of CD2AP and the activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT/nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) signaling pathway. These subsequently inhibited the secretion of related inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and the expression of apoptotic genes (CASP3 and CASP9), thereby alleviating the LPS-challenged inflammatory response in the MAC-T cells. Silencing of bta-miR-199a-3p, however, reversed the above effects. Thus, bta-miR-199a-3p inhibits LPS-induced inflammation in bMECs by directly targeting CD2AP and regulating the PI3K/AKT/NF-κB signaling pathway. This study reveals the potential regulatory mechanism of bta-miR-199a-3p in bMEC inflammatory immune response and may serve as a useful target for the treatment of mastitis.

Down-Regulation of circCOL1A2 Suppresses the Dysfunction of Diabetes-Related Retinal Microvascular Endothelial Cells via miR-646/FGF7 Axis

PURPOSE

Diabetic retinopathy (DR), the major complication of diabetes, is the leading cause of vision loss and blindness globally. Altered circular RNAs (circRNAs) expression has been found to be involved in DR process. Hence, this work aimed to explore the role and mechanism of circCOL1A2 in DR.

METHODS

Human retinal microvascular endothelial cells (RMECs) treated with high glucose (HG) were used for functional analysis. Levels of genes and proteins were detected using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blotting. In vitro experiments were conducted by transwell, tube formation, CCK-8 assays and ELISA, respectively. The binding interaction between miR-646 and circCOL1A2 or FGF7 (Fibroblast Growth Factor 7) was confirmed using dual-luciferase reporter and RNA immunoprecipitation assays.

RESULTS

CircCOL1A2 was highly expressed in retinal tissues of DR patients and HG-induced RMECs. Then RMECs were exposed to HG treatment to mimic the diabetic conditions in vitro. Functionally, circCOL1A2 knockdown attenuated HG-evoked RMEC migration, proliferation, angiogenesis, blood-retina barrier (BRB) injury and inflammation. Mechanistically, circCOL1A2 functioned as a sponge for miR-646, and miR-646 directly targeted FGF7. Further rescue experiments showed that miR-646 inhibition abated the protective effects of circCOL1A2 knockdown on RMEC function under HG treatment. Besides that, miR-646 was decreased in HG-induced RMECs, re-expression of miR-646 reversed HG-evoked RMEC dysfunction, which was rescued by FGF7 overexpression.

CONCLUSION

CircCOL1A2 silencing can suppress HG-induced migration, proliferation, angiogenesis, BRB injury and inflammation in RMECs through miR-646/FGF7 axis, suggesting the potential involvement of circCOL1A2 in DR process.

miR-199a-3p/5p regulate tumorgenesis via targeting Rheb in non-small cell lung cancer

Lung cancer is one of the deadliest cancers, in which non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounting for 85% and has a low survival rate of 5 years. Dysregulation of microRNAs (miRNAs) can participate in tumor regulation and many major diseases. In this study, we found that miR-199a-3p/5p were down-expressed in NSCLC tissue samples, cell lines, and the patient sample database. MiR-199a-3p/5p overexpression could significantly suppress cell proliferation, migration ability and promote apoptosis. Through software prediction, ras homolog enriched in brain (Rheb) was identified as a common target of miR-199a-3p and miR-199a-5p, which participated in regulating mTOR signaling pathway. The same effect of inhibiting NSCLC appeared after down-regulating the expression of Rheb. Furthermore, our findings revealed that miR-199a can significantly inhibit tumor growth and metastasis in vivo, which fully demonstrates that miR-199a plays a tumor suppressive role in NSCLC. In addition, miR-199a-3p/5p has been shown to enhance the sensitivity of gefitinib to EGFR-T790M in NSCLC. Collectively, these results prove that miR-199a-3p/5p can act as cancer suppressor genes to inhibit the mTOR signaling pathway by targeting Rheb, which in turn inhibits the regulatory process of NSCLC. Thus, to investigate the anti-cancer effect of pre-miR-199a/Rheb/mTOR axis in NSCLC, miR-199a-3p and miR-199a-5p have the potential to become an early diagnostic marker or therapeutic target for NSCLC.

The potential effects and mechanisms of hispidulin in the treatment of diabetic retinopathy based on network pharmacology

Background

Diabetic retinopathy (DR), one of the most common and severe microvascular complication of diabetes mellitus (DM), is mainly caused by diabetic metabolic disorder. So far, there is no effective treatment for DR. Eriocauli Flos, a traditional Chinese herb, has been used in treating the ophthalmic diseases including DR. However, the active ingredients and molecular mechanisms of Eriocauli Flos to treat diabetic retinopathy remain elusive.

Methods

Here, the systems pharmacology model was developed via constructing network approach. 8 active components which were screened by oral bioavailability (OB ≥ 30%) and drug-likeness (DL ≥ 0.18) and 154 targets were selected from Eriocauli Flos through TCMSP database. Another 3593 targets related to DR were obtained from Genecards, OMIM, TTD, and Drugbank databases. The 103 intersecting targets of DR and Eriocauli Flos were obtained by Draw Venn Diagram. In addition, protein-protein interaction network was established from STRING database and the compound-target network was constructed by Cytoscape which screened top 12 core targets with cytoNCA module. Then the overlapping targets were analyzed by GO and KEGG enrichment. Moreover, two core targets were selected to perform molecular docking simulation. Subsequently, CCK8 assay, RT-PCR and Western blotting were applied to further reveal the mechanism of new candidate active component from Eriocauli Flos in high glucose-induced HRECs.

Results

The results showed that the overlapping targets by GO analysis were enriched in cellular response to chemical stress, response to oxidative stress, response to reactive oxygen species, reactive oxygen species metabolic process and so on. Besides, the overlapping targets principally regulated pathways such as AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications, lipid atherosclerosis, fluid shear stress and atherosclerosis, and PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. Molecular docking exhibited that VEGFA and TNF-α, had good bindings to the great majority of compounds, especially the compound hispidulin. In vitro, hispidulin ameliorated high-glucose induced proliferation by down-regulating the expression of p-ERK, p-Akt, and VEGFA; meanwhile inhibited the mRNA levels of TNF-α.

Conclusions

In this study, through network pharmacology analysis and experimental validation, we found that hispidulin maybe has a potential targeted therapy effect for DR by decreasing the expression of p-Akt, p-ERK, and VEGFA, which resulted in ameliorating the proliferation in HRECs.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12906-022-03593-2.

Investigating the Mechanisms of Pollen Typhae in the Treatment of Diabetic Retinopathy Based on Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking

OBJECTIVE

To explore the main bioactive compounds and investigate the underlying mechanism of Pollen Typhae (PT) against diabetic retinopathy (DR) by network pharmacology and molecular docking analysis.

METHODS

Bioactive ingredients and the target proteins of PT were obtained from TCMSP, and the related target genes were acquired from the SwissTargetPrediction database. The target genes of DR were obtained from GeneCards, TTD database, DisGeNET database, and DrugBank. The compound-target interaction network was established based on Cytoscape 3.7.2. The protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed via STRING database and Cytoscape 3.7.2. Gene ontology (GO) analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis were visualized through DAVID database and Bioinformatics. Ingredient-gene-pathway network analysis was conducted to further screen the ingredients, target proteins, and pathways closely related to the biological mechanism on PT for DR, and molecular docking analysis was performed by SYBYL-X 2.1.1 software. Finally, the mechanism and underlying targets of PT in the treatment of DR were predicted.

RESULTS

A total of 8 compounds and 171 intersection targets were obtained based on the online network database. 7 main compounds were screened from compound-target network, and 53 targets including the top six key targets (PTGS2, AKT1, VEGFA, MAPK3, TNF, and EGFR) were further acquired from PPI analysis. The 53 key targets covered 80 signaling pathways, among which PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, focal adhesion, Rap1 signaling pathway, VEGF signaling pathway, and HIF-1 signaling pathway were closely connected with the biological mechanism involved in the alleviation of DR by PT. Ingredient-gene-pathway network shows that AKTI, EGFR, and VEGFA were core genes, kaempferol and isorhamnetin were pivotal ingredients, and VEGF signaling pathway and Rap1 signaling pathway were closely involved in anti-DR. The docking results indicated that five main compounds (arachidonic acid, isorhamnetin, quercetin, kaempferol, and (2R)-5,7-dihydroxy-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)chroman-4-one) had good binding activity with EGFR and AKT1 targets.

CONCLUSION

The active ingredients in PT may regulate the levels of inflammatory factors, suppress the oxidative stress, and inhibit the proliferation, migration, and invasion of retinal pericytes by acting on PTGS2, AKT1, VEGFA, MAPK3, TNF, and EGFR targets through VEGF signaling pathway, PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, Rap1 signaling pathway, and HIF-1 signaling pathway to play a therapeutic role in diabetic retinopathy.

Tribbles Homolog 3 Mediates the Development and Progression of Diabetic Retinopathy

The current understanding of the molecular pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy does not provide a mechanistic link between early molecular changes and the subsequent progression of the disease. In this study, we found that human diabetic retinas overexpressed TRIB3 and investigated the role of TRIB3 in diabetic retinal pathobiology in mice. We discovered that TRIB3 controlled major molecular events in early diabetic retinas via HIF1α-mediated regulation of retinal glucose flux, reprogramming cellular metabolism, and governing of inflammatory gene expression. These early molecular events further defined the development of neurovascular deficit observed in mice with diabetic retinopathy. TRIB3 ablation in the streptozotocin-induced mouse model led to significant retinal ganglion cell survival and functional restoration accompanied by a dramatic reduction in pericyte loss and acellular capillary formation. Under hypoxic conditions, TRIB3 contributed to advanced proliferative stages by significant upregulation of GFAP and VEGF expression, thus controlling gliosis and aberrant vascularization in oxygen-induced retinopathy mouse retinas. Overall, our data reveal that TRIB3 is a master regulator of diabetic retinal pathophysiology that may accelerate the onset and progression of diabetic retinopathy to proliferative stages in humans and present TRIB3 as a potentially novel therapeutic target for diabetic retinopathy.

Construction and Validation of an Autophagy-Related Prognostic Signature and a Nomogram for Bladder Cancer

Objective

Bladder cancer (BC) is one of the top ten cancers endangering human health but we still lack accurate tools for BC patients’ risk stratification. This study aimed to develop an autophagy-related signature that could predict the prognosis of BC. In order to provide clinical doctors with a visual tool that could precisely predict the survival probability of BC patients, we also attempted to establish a nomogram based on the risk signature.

Methods

We screened out autophagy-related genes (ARGs) combining weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) and differentially expressed gene (DEG) in BC. Based on the screened ARGs, we performed survival analysis and Cox regression analysis to identify potential prognostic biomarkers. A risk signature based on the prognostic ARGs by multivariate Cox regression analysis was established, which was validated by using seven datasets. To provide clinical doctors with a useful tool for survival possibility prediction, a nomogram assessed by the ARG-based signature and clinicopathological features was constructed, verified using four independent datasets.

Results

Three prognostic biomarkers including BOC (P = 0.008, HR = 1.104), FGF7(P = 0.030, HR = 1.066), and MAP1A (P = 0.001, HR = 1.173) were identified and validated. An autophagy-related risk signature was established and validated. This signature could act as an independent prognostic feature in patients with BC (P = 0.047, HR = 1.419). We then constructed two nomograms with and without ARG-based signature and subsequent analysis indicated that the nomogram with ARG signature showed high accuracy for overall survival probability prediction of patients with BC (C-index = 0.732, AUC = 0.816). These results proved that the ARG signature improved the clinical net benefit of the standard model based on clinicopathological features (age, pathologic stage).

Conclusions

Three ARGs were identified as prognosis biomarkers in BC. An ARG-based signature was established for the first time, showing strong potential for prognosis prediction in BC. This signature was proven to improve the clinical net benefit of the standard model. A nomogram was established using this signature, which could lead to more effective prognosis prediction for BC patients.

Overview of key molecular and pharmacological targets for diabetes and associated diseases

Diabetes epidemiological quantities are demonstrating one of the most important communities' health worries. The essential diabetic difficulties are including cardiomyopathy, nephropathy, inflammation, and retinopathy. Despite developments in glucose decreasing treatments and drugs, these diabetic complications are still ineffectively reversed or prohibited. Several signaling and molecular pathways are vital targets in the new therapies of diabetes. This review assesses the newest researches about the key molecules and signaling pathways as targets of molecular pharmacology in diabetes and diseases related to it for better treatment based on molecular sciences. The disease is not cured by current pharmacological strategies for type 2 diabetes. While several drug combinations are accessible that can efficiently modulate glycemia and mitigate long-term complications, these agents do not reverse pathogenesis, and in practice, they are not established to modify the patient's specific molecular profiling. Therapeutic companies have benefited from human genetics. Genome exploration, which is agnostic to the information that exists, has revealed tens of loci that impact glycemic modulation. The physiological report has begun to examine subtypes of diseases, illustrate heterogeneity and propose biochemical therapeutic pathways.

Network Pharmacology-Based Approach to Comparatively Predict the Active Ingredients and Molecular Targets of Compound Xueshuantong Capsule and Hexuemingmu Tablet in the Treatment of Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy

Background

Compound Xueshuantong capsule (CXC) and Hexuemingmu tablet (HXMMT) are two important Chinese patent medicines (CPMs) frequently used to treat proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR), especially when complicated with vitreous hemorrhage (VH). However, a network pharmacology approach to understand the therapeutic mechanisms of these two CPMs in PDR has not been applied.

Objective

To identify differences in the active ingredients between CXC and HXMMT and to comparatively predict and further analyze the molecular targets shared by these CPMs and PDR. Materials and methods. The differentially expressed messenger RNAs (mRNAs) between normal retinal tissues in healthy individuals and active fibrovascular membranes in PDR patients were retrieved from the Gene Expression Omnibus database. The active ingredients of CXC and HXMMT and the targets of these ingredients were retrieved from the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology database. The intersections of the CPM (CXC and HXMMT) targets and PDR targets were determined. Then, Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses were performed, and the ingredient-target networks, protein-protein interaction networks, and KEGG-target (KEGG-T) networks were constructed.

Results

CXC contains 4 herbs, and HXMMT contains 19. Radix salviae is the only herb common to both. CXC had 34 potential therapeutic targets in PDR, while HXMMT had these 34 and 10 additional targets. Both CPMs shared the following main processes: response to reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress, regulation of blood vessel diameter and size, vasoconstriction, smooth muscle contraction, hemostasis, and blood coagulation. The shared pathways included the AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications, TNF signaling pathway, relaxin signaling pathway, and IL-17 signaling pathway.

Conclusions

Both CXC and HXMMT include components effective at treating PDR and affect the following main processes: response to reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress, regulation of blood vessels, and blood coagulation. Radix salviae, the only herb common to both CPMs, contains many useful active ingredients. The PDR-CXC and PDR-HXMMT networks shared 34 common genes (RELA, HSPA8, HSP90AA, HSP90AB1, BRCA, EWSR1, CUL7, HNRNPU, MYC, CTNNB1, MDM2, YWHAZ, CDK2, AR, FN1, HUWE1, TP53, TUBB, EP300, GRB2, VCP, MCM2, EEF1A1, NTRK1, TRAF6, EGFR, PRKDC, SRC, HDAC5, APP, ESR1, AKT1, UBC, and COPS5), and the PDR-HXMMT network has 10 additional genes (RNF2, VNL, RPS27, COPS5, XPO1, PARP1, RACK1, YWHAB, and ITGA4). The top 5 pathways with the highest gene ratio in both networks were the AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications, TNF signaling pathway, relaxin signaling pathway, IL-17 signaling pathway, and focal adhesion. Additional pathways such as neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, chemokine signaling pathway, and AMPK signaling pathway were enriched with HXMMT targets. Thus, HXMMT has more therapeutic targets shared by different active ingredients and more abundant gene functions than CXC, which may be two major reasons why HXMMT is more strongly recommended than CXC as an auxiliary treatment for new-onset VH secondary to PDR. However, the underlying mechanisms still need to be further explored.