Induction of metallothionein in chick embryos as a mechanism of tolerance to platinum group metal exposure

Human health risks associated with consumption of fish contaminated with trace elements from intensive mining activities in a peri-urban region

Worldwide, numerous rural communities and low-income groups depend on fish harvested by subsistence fishers from local rivers and its impoundments as a source of protein. The aim of the present study was to determine the trace element bioaccumulation (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Pt, Zn) in three edible fish species (Cyprinus carpio, Clarias gariepinus, Oreochromis mossambicus) from two impoundments in the Hex River system, South Africa, as well as the chronic health risk these trace elements pose to regular fish consumers. Trace element concentrations in the Hex River are naturally high (geogenic source), however, increased anthropogenic activities, such as intensive platinum mining activities, elevate the already high background concentrations. Concentrations of As, Cr, and Pt in C. carpio and C. gariepinus, as well as Ni and Zn in O. mossambicus were significantly higher in the impacted impoundment as compared to the reference impoundment. Concentrations of Cr and Cu were at both sampling sites the highest in O. mossambicus. From the human health risk assessment, As poses non-carcinogenic (HQ = 2-7) and carcinogenic risks (33-93 out of 10,000 people), while Cr (3-10 out of 10,000 people) and Ni (2-6 out of 10,000 people) pose only carcinogenic risks for the regular consumption of all three fish species from both impoundments, indicating a high probability of adverse human health effects. For As, Cr and Ni, also the sediment concentrations exceeded the levels of concern within the consensus based sediment quality guideline (CBSQG), while Cd, Cu, Ni and Zn exceeded the water quality guideline values. Thus, the CBSQG approach could be a promising tool for predicting human health risk associated with fish consumption. Since the present study only focused on the individual trace element risks, mixed toxicity of these trace elements and possible other pollutants within these fish species may pose an even greater risk to people who consume these fish regularly.

Toxicity assessment of two-dimensional nanomaterials molybdenum disulfide in Gallus gallus domesticus

Recently two-dimensional nanomaterials, such as graphene and molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂), have received much attention as adsorbent materials for the effective removal of organic contaminants. MoS₂ is attracting attention, not only for its chemical-physical properties, but also for its wide availability in nature as a constituent of molybdenite. The aim of this investigation was to assess the effects of different MoS₂ concentrations (5 × 10^-1, 5 × 10^-2 and 5 × 10^-3 mg/ml) on the embryonated eggs of Gallus gallus domesticus, according to Beck method. We evaluated the toxic effect of the MoS₂ powder purchased at Sigma-Aldrich indicated as "received" and MoS₂ powder treated via mechanical milling indicated as "ball mille". Subsequently, the embryos were sacrificed at different times of embryonic development (11th, 15^th and 19^th day after incubation) in order to evaluate their embryotoxic and teratogenic effects. The alterations of the embryonic development were studied by morphological and immunohistochemical analysis of the tissues. The results obtained have shown the toxicity of both powders of MoS₂ with a high percentage of deaths and growth delays. Moreover, the immunohistochemical analysis performed on several tissue sections showed a strong positivity to the anti-metallothionein1 antibody only for the erythrocytes.

Toxicity of different forms of graphene in a chicken embryo model

In the present work, the toxicity of three forms of graphene: pristine graphene (pG), graphene oxide (GO), and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) was investigated using a chicken embryo model. Fertilized chicken eggs were divided into the control group and groups administered with pG, GO, and rGO, in concentrations of 50, 500, and 5000 μg/ml. The experimental solutions were injected in ovo into the eggs, and at day 18 of incubation, the embryo survival, body and organ weights, the ultrastructure of liver samples, and the concentration of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) in the livers were measured. Survival of embryos decreased significantly after treatment with all types of graphene, but not in a dose-dependent manner. The body weights were only slightly affected by the highest doses of graphene, while the organ weights were not different among treatment groups. In all experimental groups, atypical hepatocyte ultrastructure and mitochondrial damage were observed. The concentration of the marker of DNA damage 8-OHdG in the liver significantly decreased after pG and rGO treatments. Further in vivo studies with different animal models are necessary to clarify the level of toxicity of different types of graphene and to estimate the concentrations appropriate to evaluate their biomedical applications and environmental hazard.

Innovative Use of Palladium Compounds To Selectively Detect Live Enterobacteriaceae in Milk by PCR

Ethidium monoazide and propidium monoazide (EMA and PMA) have been used in combination with PCR for more than a decade to facilitate the discrimination of live and dead bacteria (LD discrimination). These methods, however, require many laborious procedures, including the use of a darkroom. Here, we demonstrate an innovative use of palladium compounds involving lower limits of detection and quantification of targeted live cells, fewer laborious procedures, lower costs, and potentially higher-throughput analysis than the use of EMA and PMA. We have also recently reported platinum compounds for LD discrimination, but platinum compounds carry costs that are 3 times higher because of the requirement for much larger amounts for LD discrimination than palladium compounds. Palladium compounds can penetrate dead (compromised) but not live bacteria and can be chelated primarily by chromosomal DNA and cell wall transmembrane proteins, with small amounts of DNA-binding proteins in vivo The new mechanism for palladium compounds is obviously different from that of platinum compounds, which primarily target DNA. Combining palladium compounds with PCR (Pd-PCR) in water resulted in discrimination between live and dead Enterobacteriaceae bacteria that was much clearer than that seen with the PMA method. Pd-PCR correlated with reference plating or with the currently used PMA-PCR method for pasteurized milk, based on EN ISO 16140:2003 validation. Pd-PCR enabled us to specifically detect and assay viable Enterobacteriaceae cells at concentrations of 5 to 10 CFU/ml in milk while following U.S./EU regulations after a 4.5-h process in a typical laboratory exposed to natural or electric light, as specified by U.S./EU regulations.IMPORTANCE Ethidium monoazide and propidium monoazide (EMA and PMA) facilitate the discrimination of live and dead bacteria (LD discrimination). These methods, however, require many laborious procedures, including the use of a darkroom. Here, we demonstrate an innovative use of palladium compounds involving fewer laborious procedures, lower costs, and potentially higher-throughput analysis than the use of EMA and PMA. We have also recently reported platinum compounds for LD discrimination, but platinum compounds carry costs that are 3 times higher because of the requirement for much larger amounts for LD discrimination than palladium compounds, which have also a novel reaction mechanism different from that of platinum compounds. In view of testing cost, palladium compounds are also very useful here compared with platinum compounds. Ultimately, the innovative Pd-PCR method may be also substituted for the currently used reference plating methods.

Toxicity of pristine graphene in experiments in a chicken embryo model

Evaluation of the potential cytotoxicity of graphene is a key factor for medical applications, where flakes or a surface of graphene may be used as bioactive molecules, drug carriers, or biosensors. In the present work, effects of pristine graphene (pG) on the development of a living organism, with an emphasis on morphological and molecular states of the brain, were investigated using a chicken embryo model. Fertilized chicken eggs were divided into the control group and groups administered with pG suspended in milli-Q water at concentrations of 50 μg/L, 100 μg/L, 500 μg/L, 1,000 μg/L, 5,000 μg/L, and 10,000 μg/L (n=30 per group). The experimental solutions were injected in ovo into the albumin and then the eggs were incubated. After 19 days of incubation, the survival, weight of the body and organs, and blood serum biochemical indices were measured. The brain samples were collected for microscopic examination of brain ultrastructure and measurements of gene and protein expression. Survival of embryos was significantly decreased after treatment with pG, but the body and organ weights as well as biochemical indices were not affected. In all treatment groups, some atypical ultrastructures of the brain were observed, but they were not enhanced by the increasing concentrations of pG. Expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen at the messenger ribonucleic acid level was downregulated, and the number of proliferating cell nuclear antigen-positive nuclei was significantly reduced in the 500-10,000 μg/L groups compared with the control group, indicating a decreased rate of deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis in the brain. The present results demonstrate some harmful effects of the applied pG flakes on the developing organism, including brain tissue, which ought to be considered prior to any medical applications.

Evaluating the abnormal ossification in tibiotarsi of developing chick embryos exposed to 1.0ppm doses of platinum group metals by spectroscopic techniques

Platinum group metals (PGMs), i.e., palladium (Pd), platinum (Pt) and rhodium (Rh), are found at pollutant levels in the environment and are known to accumulate in plant and animal tissues. However, little is known about PGM toxicity. Our previous studies showed that chick embryos exposed to PGM concentrations of 1mL of 5.0ppm (LD50) and higher exhibited severe skeletal deformities. This work hypothesized that 1.0ppm doses of PGMs will negatively impact the mineralization process in tibiotarsi. One milliliter of 1.0ppm of Pd(II), Pt(IV), Rh(III) aqueous salt solutions and a PGM-mixture were injected into the air sac on the 7th and 14th day of incubation. Control groups with no-injection and vehicle injections were included. On the 20th day, embryos were sacrificed to analyze the PGM effects on tibiotarsi using four spectroscopic techniques. 1) Micro-Raman imaging: Hyperspectral Raman data were collected on paraffin embedded cross-sections of tibiotarsi, and processed using in-house-written MATLAB codes. Micro-Raman univariate images that were created from the ν1(PO4(3-)) integrated areas revealed anomalous mineral inclusions within the bone marrow for the PGM-mixture treatment. The age of the mineral crystals (ν(CO3(2-))/ν1(PO4(3-))) was statistically lower for all treatments when compared to controls (p≤0.05). 2) FAAS: The percent calcium content of the chemically digested tibiotarsi in the Pd and Pt groups changed by ~45% with respect to the no-injection control (16.1±0.2%). 3) Micro-XRF imaging: Abnormal calcium and phosphorus inclusions were found within the inner longitudinal sections of tibiotarsi for the PGM-mixture treatment. A clear increase in the mineral content was observed for the outer sections of the Pd treatment. 4) ICP-OES: PGM concentrations in tibiotarsi were undetectable (<5ppb). The spectroscopic techniques gave corroborating results, confirmed the hypothesis, and explained the observed pathological (skeletal developmental abnormalities) and histological changes (tibiotarsus ischemia and nuclear fragmentation in chondrocytes).

The effects on soil/water/plant/animal systems by platinum group elements

Emissions of toxic substances such as oxides of carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, and, in addition, aromatic hydrocarbons, aldehydes and heavy metals are the most serious problem of road traffic affecting landscape. Platinum group elements (PGE), which are the main component of the catalyst, are one of the main sources of heavy metals in the environment. Here, we review the way by which emissions and forms of the emitted PGE end up in the environment especially to the soil-water-plant-animal system. The major points discussed are the following: 1) the main sources of PGE emission are automobile exhaust catalysts; 2) hospitals, where platinum is widely used to treat malignant neoplasm, and urban waste water belonging to other important sources of PGE in the environment; 3) soil is one of the most important components of the environment that may be contaminated with platinum metals; 4) phytotoxicity of PGE depends on the following conditions: the concentration of metals in the soil, time of exposure, the chemical form of metal, the chemical composition of exposed soil and plant species; 5) animals are also endangered by the increasing concentration of PGE in the environment. Moreover, we pay our attention to thiol-based mechanisms of how an organism protects itself against platinum group elements.

Genotoxicity of platinum in embryos of zebrafish (Danio rerio) and ramshorn snail (Marisa cornuarietis)

The metal platinum is inter alia used for industrial and medical purposes. Due to its application in automobile catalytic converters and as an anti-cancer drug, Pt enters the aquatic environment via road runoff and hospital sewage and raises concerns about its environmental impact and toxicity to organisms. Therefore, the genotoxicity of Pt at 0, 0.1, 1, 10, 50, 100 and 200μg/l PtCl(2) was tested on two freshwater organisms, zebrafish (Danio rerio) and ramshorn snail (Marisa cornuarietis) using the single cell gel electrophoresis, also called comet assay. PtCl(2) did not show any genotoxicity for D. rerio at the tested concentrations, whereas significantly elevated DNA damage was observed in M. cornuarietis at 1μg/l PtCl(2) and beyond. The results of the study suggest a high sensitivity of M. cornuarietis concerning the genotoxic impact of PtCl(2).

Airborne particulate matter, platinum group elements and human health: a review of recent evidence

Environmental concentrations of the platinum group elements (PGE) platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd) and rhodium (Rh) have been on the rise, due largely to the use of automobile catalytic converters which employ these metals as exhaust catalysts. It has generally been assumed that the health risks associated with environmental exposures to PGE are minimal. More recent studies on PGE toxicity, environmental bioavailability and concentrations in biologically relevant media indicate however that environmental exposures to these metals may indeed pose a health risk, especially at a chronic, subclinical level. The purpose of this paper is to review the most recent evidence and provide an up-to-date assessment of the risks related to environmental exposures of PGE, particularly in airborne particulate matter (PM). This review concludes that these metals may pose a greater health risk than once thought for several reasons. First, emitted PGE may be easily mobilised and solubilised by various compounds commonly present in the environment, thereby enhancing their bioavailability. Second, PGE may be transformed into more toxic species upon uptake by organisms. The presence of chloride in lung fluids, for instance, may lead to the formation of halogenated PGE complexes that have a greater potential to induce cellular damage. Third, a significant proportion of PGE found in airborne PM is present in the fine fraction that been found to be associated with increases in morbidity and mortality. PGE are also a concern to the extent that they contribute to the suite of metals found in fine PM suspected of eliciting a variety of health effects, especially in vulnerable populations. All these factors highlight the need to monitor environmental levels of PGE and continue research on their bioavailability, behaviour, speciation and associated toxicity to enable us to better assess their potential to elicit health effects in humans.