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Abstract
The EPH receptor tyrosine kinases and their signaling partners, the EPHRINS, comprise a large class of cell signaling molecules that plays diverse roles in development. As cell membrane-anchored signaling molecules, they regulate cellular organization by modulating the strength of cellular contacts, usually by impacting the actin cytoskeleton or cell adhesion programs. Through these cellular functions, EPH/EPHRIN signaling often regulates tissue shape. Indeed, recent evidence indicates that this signaling family is ancient and associated with the origin of multicellularity. Though extensively studied, our understanding of the signaling mechanisms employed by this large family of signaling proteins remains patchwork, and a truly "canonical" EPH/EPHRIN signal transduction pathway is not known and may not exist. Instead, several foundational evolutionarily conserved mechanisms are overlaid by a myriad of tissue -specific functions, though common themes emerge from these as well. Here, I review recent advances and the related contexts that have provided new understanding of the conserved and varied molecular and cellular mechanisms employed by EPH/EPHRIN signaling during development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey O Bush
- Department of Cell and Tissue Biology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States; Program in Craniofacial Biology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States; Institute for Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States; Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States.
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2
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Abstract
Sponges (Porifera), basal nonbilaterian metazoans, are well known for their high regenerative capacities ranging from reparation of a lost body wall to whole-body regeneration from a small piece of tissues or even from dissociated cells. Sponges from different clades utilize different cell sources and various morphological processes to complete the regeneration. This variety makes these animals promising models for studying the evolution of regeneration in Metazoa. However, there are few publications concerning the regenerative mechanisms in sponges. This could be partially explained by the delicacy of sponge tissues, which requires modifying and fine adjusting of common research protocols. The current chapter describes various methods for studying regeneration processes in the marine calcareous sponge, Leucosolenia. Provided protocols span all significant research steps: from sponge collection and surgical operations to various types of microscopy and immunohistochemical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey I Lavrov
- Pertsov White Sea Biological Station, Biological Faculty, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia.
- Department of Embryology, Faculty of Biology, Saint-Petersburg State University, Saint-Petersburg, Russia.
| | - Alexander V Ereskovsky
- Department of Embryology, Faculty of Biology, Saint-Petersburg State University, Saint-Petersburg, Russia.
- Institut Méditerranéen de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie marine et continentale (IMBE), Aix Marseille University, CNRS, IRD, Avignon University, Station Marine d'Endoume, Marseille, France.
- Koltzov Institute of Developmental Biology of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
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Ereskovsky A, Borisenko IE, Bolshakov FV, Lavrov AI. Whole-Body Regeneration in Sponges: Diversity, Fine Mechanisms, and Future Prospects. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:506. [PMID: 33805549 PMCID: PMC8066720 DOI: 10.3390/genes12040506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
While virtually all animals show certain abilities for regeneration after an injury, these abilities vary greatly among metazoans. Porifera (Sponges) is basal metazoans characterized by a wide variety of different regenerative processes, including whole-body regeneration (WBR). Considering phylogenetic position and unique body organization, sponges are highly promising models, as they can shed light on the origin and early evolution of regeneration in general and WBR in particular. The present review summarizes available data on the morphogenetic and cellular mechanisms accompanying different types of WBR in sponges. Sponges show a high diversity of WBR, which principally could be divided into (1) WBR from a body fragment and (2) WBR by aggregation of dissociated cells. Sponges belonging to different phylogenetic clades and even to different species and/or differing in the anatomical structure undergo different morphogeneses after similar operations. A common characteristic feature of WBR in sponges is the instability of the main body axis: a change of the organism polarity is described during all types of WBR. The cellular mechanisms of WBR are different across sponge classes, while cell dedifferentiations and transdifferentiations are involved in regeneration processes in all sponges. Data considering molecular regulation of WBR in sponges are extremely scarce. However, the possibility to achieve various types of WBR ensured by common morphogenetic and cellular basis in a single species makes sponges highly accessible for future comprehensive physiological, biochemical, and molecular studies of regeneration processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Ereskovsky
- Institut Méditerranéen de Biodiversité et d’Ecologie Marine et Continentale (IMBE), Aix Marseille University, CNRS, IRD, Station Marine d’Endoume, Rue de la Batterie des Lions, Avignon University, 13007 Marseille, France
- Department of Embryology, Faculty of Biology, Saint-Petersburg State University, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia;
- Evolution of Morphogenesis Laboratory, Koltzov Institute of Developmental Biology of Russian Academy of Sciences, 119334 Moscow, Russia
| | - Ilya E. Borisenko
- Department of Embryology, Faculty of Biology, Saint-Petersburg State University, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia;
| | - Fyodor V. Bolshakov
- Pertsov White Sea Biological Station, Biological Faculty, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119192 Moscow, Russia; (F.V.B.); (A.I.L.)
| | - Andrey I. Lavrov
- Pertsov White Sea Biological Station, Biological Faculty, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119192 Moscow, Russia; (F.V.B.); (A.I.L.)
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4
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Pozzolini M, Gallus L, Ghignone S, Ferrando S, Candiani S, Bozzo M, Bertolino M, Costa G, Bavestrello G, Scarfì S. Insights into the evolution of metazoan regenerative mechanisms: roles of TGF superfamily members in tissue regeneration of the marine sponge Chondrosia reniformis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 222:jeb.207894. [PMID: 31371401 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.207894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Tissue repair is an adaptive and widespread metazoan response. It is characterised by different cellular mechanisms and complex signalling networks that involve numerous growth factors and cytokines. In higher animals, transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signalling plays a fundamental role in wound healing. In order to evaluate the involvement of TGF superfamily members in lower invertebrate tissue regeneration, sequences for putative TGF ligands and receptors were isolated from the transcriptome of the marine sponge Chondrosia reniformis We identified seven transcripts that coded for TGF superfamily ligands and three for TGF superfamily receptors. Phylogenetically, C. reniformis TGF ligands were not grouped into any TGF superfamily clades and thus presumably evolved independently, whereas the TGF receptors clustered in the Type I receptor group. We performed gene expression profiling of these transcripts in sponge regenerating tissue explants. Data showed that three ligands (TGF1, TGF3 and TGF6) were mainly expressed during early regeneration and seemed to be involved in stem cell maintenance, whereas two others (TGF4 and TGF5) were strongly upregulated during late regeneration and thus were considered pro-differentiating factors. The presence of a strong TGF inhibitor, SB431542, blocked the restoration of the exopinacoderm layer in the sponge explants, confirming the functional involvement of the TGF pathway in tissue regeneration in these early evolved animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Pozzolini
- Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences (DISTAV), University of Genova, Via Pastore 3, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Gallus
- Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences (DISTAV), University of Genova, Via Pastore 3, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Stefano Ghignone
- Institute for Sustainable Plant Protection-Turin Unit (CNR), Viale Mattioli 25, 10125 Torino, Italy
| | - Sara Ferrando
- Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences (DISTAV), University of Genova, Via Pastore 3, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Simona Candiani
- Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences (DISTAV), University of Genova, Via Pastore 3, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Matteo Bozzo
- Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences (DISTAV), University of Genova, Via Pastore 3, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Marco Bertolino
- Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences (DISTAV), University of Genova, Via Pastore 3, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Gabriele Costa
- Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences (DISTAV), University of Genova, Via Pastore 3, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Giorgio Bavestrello
- Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences (DISTAV), University of Genova, Via Pastore 3, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Sonia Scarfì
- Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences (DISTAV), University of Genova, Via Pastore 3, 16132 Genova, Italy
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Colgren J, Nichols SA. The significance of sponges for comparative studies of developmental evolution. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2019; 9:e359. [PMID: 31352684 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Sponges, ctenophores, placozoans, and cnidarians have key evolutionary significance in that they bracket the time interval during which organized animal tissues were first assembled, fundamental cell types originated (e.g., neurons and myocytes), and developmental patterning mechanisms evolved. Sponges in particular have often been viewed as living surrogates for early animal ancestors, largely due to similarities between their feeding cells (choanocytes) with choanoflagellates, the unicellular/colony-forming sister group to animals. Here, we evaluate these claims and highlight aspects of sponge biology with comparative value for understanding developmental evolution, irrespective of the purported antiquity of their body plan. Specifically, we argue that sponges strike a different balance between patterning and plasticity than other animals, and that environmental inputs may have prominence over genetically regulated developmental mechanisms. We then present a case study to illustrate how contractile epithelia in sponges can help unravel the complex ancestry of an ancient animal cell type, myocytes, which sponges lack. Sponges represent hundreds of millions of years of largely unexamined evolutionary experimentation within animals. Their phylogenetic placement lends them key significance for learning about the past, and their divergent biology challenges current views about the scope of animal cell and developmental biology. This article is characterized under: Comparative Development and Evolution > Evolutionary Novelties Comparative Development and Evolution > Body Plan Evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Colgren
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Denver, Denver, Colorado
| | - Scott A Nichols
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Denver, Denver, Colorado
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6
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Abstract
Over 100 years of sponge biology research has demonstrated spectacular diversity of cell behaviors during embryonic development, metamorphosis and regeneration. The past two decades have allowed the first glimpses into molecular and cellular mechanisms of these processes. We have learned that while embryonic development of sponges utilizes a conserved set of developmental regulatory genes known from other animals, sponge cell differentiation appears unusually labile. During normal development, and especially as a response to injury, sponge cells appear to have an uncanny ability to transdifferentiate. Here, I argue that sponge cell differentiation plasticity does not preclude homology of cell types and processes between sponges and other animals. Instead, it does provide a wonderful opportunity to better understand transdifferentiation processes in all animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maja Adamska
- Division of Biomedical Science and Biochemistry, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.
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7
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Alexander BE, Achlatis M, Osinga R, van der Geest HG, Cleutjens JPM, Schutte B, de Goeij JM. Cell kinetics during regeneration in the sponge Halisarca caerulea: how local is the response to tissue damage? PeerJ 2015; 3:e820. [PMID: 25780772 PMCID: PMC4358696 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2014] [Accepted: 02/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Sponges have a remarkable capacity to rapidly regenerate in response to wound infliction. In addition, sponges rapidly renew their filter systems (choanocytes) to maintain a healthy population of cells. This study describes the cell kinetics of choanocytes in the encrusting reef sponge Halisarca caerulea during early regeneration (0-8 h) following experimental wound infliction. Subsequently, we investigated the spatial relationship between regeneration and cell proliferation over a six-day period directly adjacent to the wound, 1 cm, and 3 cm from the wound. Cell proliferation was determined by the incorporation of 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU). We demonstrate that during early regeneration, the growth fraction of the choanocytes (i.e., the percentage of proliferative cells) adjacent to the wound is reduced (7.0 ± 2.5%) compared to steady-state, undamaged tissue (46.6 ± 2.6%), while the length of the cell cycle remained short (5.6 ± 3.4 h). The percentage of proliferative choanocytes increased over time in all areas and after six days of regeneration choanocyte proliferation rates were comparable to steady-state tissue. Tissue areas farther from the wound had higher rates of choanocyte proliferation than areas closer to the wound, indicating that more resources are demanded from tissue in the immediate vicinity of the wound. There was no difference in the number of proliferative mesohyl cells in regenerative sponges compared to steady-state sponges. Our data suggest that the production of collagen-rich wound tissue is a key process in tissue regeneration for H. caerulea, and helps to rapidly occupy the bare substratum exposed by the wound. Regeneration and choanocyte renewal are competing and negatively correlated life-history traits, both essential to the survival of sponges. The efficient allocation of limited resources to these life-history traits has enabled the ecological success and diversification of sponges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany E Alexander
- Department of Aquatic Ecology and Ecotoxicology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam , The Netherlands ; Porifarma B.V. , Ede , The Netherlands
| | - Michelle Achlatis
- Department of Aquatic Ecology and Ecotoxicology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | | | - Harm G van der Geest
- Department of Aquatic Ecology and Ecotoxicology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Jack P M Cleutjens
- Department of Pathology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University , Maastricht , The Netherlands
| | - Bert Schutte
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Research Institute Growth and Development, Maastricht University , Maastricht , The Netherlands
| | - Jasper M de Goeij
- Department of Aquatic Ecology and Ecotoxicology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam , Amsterdam , The Netherlands ; Porifarma B.V. , Ede , The Netherlands
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8
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Lavrov AI, Kosevich IA. Sponge cell reaggregation: Mechanisms and dynamics of the process. Russ J Dev Biol 2014. [DOI: 10.1134/s1062360414040067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Ereskovsky AV, Dondua AK. The problem of germ layers in sponges (Porifera) and some issues concerning early metazoan evolution. ZOOL ANZ 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcz.2006.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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10
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Gaino E, Rebora M. Ability of mobile cells of the freshwater spongeEphydatia fluviatilis(Porifera, Demospongiae) to digest diatoms. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1080/11250000309356491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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11
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Gaino E, Magnino G. Dissociated cells of the calcareous sponge clathrina: a model for investigating cell adhesion and cell motility in vitro. Microsc Res Tech 1999; 44:279-92. [PMID: 10098928 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0029(19990215)44:4<279::aid-jemt7>3.0.co;2-e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The study of cell-cell and cell-substratum adhesion in vitro is useful for understanding cell behavior in a three-dimensional pattern. We have used dissociated cells (choanocytes represent the main fraction) from the calcareous sponge Clathrina, namely C. cerebrum and C. clathrus, to illustrate our present understanding on three main aspects of cell-cell and cell-substratum adhesion in vitro: (1) cytoskeletal protrusions; (2) cell behaviours on organic substrata; and (3) paths of locomotory sponge cell. Cell locomotion occurs by the extensions of scleropodial and lamellipodial protrusions, by way of actin polymerization. The extent to which cells produce these cytoplasmic processes varies according to the substratum (e.g., collagen, fibronectin, laminin, polylysine). It was found that more cell extensions were produced on collagen substrata, and this led to greater cell movement. Advancing choanocytes are not polarized. Their paths are particularly complicated, showing linear segments, which produce a more efficent cellular translocation, and winding tracts with frequent turns or loops. Small amoeboid cells describe more linear paths with a wide range of speed variation than larger cells. The presence of cell-derived substratum reduces the progressive dispersion of cells and allows cells to encounter one another in such a way that the initial random walking later turns into non-random displacement. Even though cAMP-treated cells exhibit different aggregative tactics, cAMP 10(-8) M remarkably enhances cell encounters and supports the existing information that this cyclic nucleotide represents a signal that affects cell morphology and locomotion. The bulk of data on sponge cell-cell and cell-substratum adhesion has been evaluated by mentioning the significant advances and references concerning studies of other cell systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Gaino
- Istituto di Zoologia, Perugia, Italy.
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Morphological responses of dissociated sponge cells to different organic substrata. Tissue Cell 1993; 25:333-41. [DOI: 10.1016/0040-8166(93)90075-v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/1993] [Revised: 02/01/1993] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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