1
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Ma J, Zhang R, Li Y. Age Weakens the Other-Race Effect among Han Subjects in Recognizing Own- and Other-Ethnicity Faces. Behav Sci (Basel) 2023; 13:675. [PMID: 37622815 PMCID: PMC10452021 DOI: 10.3390/bs13080675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The development and change in the other-race effect (ORE) in different age groups have always been a focus of researchers. Previous studies have mainly focused on the influence of maturity of life (from infancy to early adulthood) on the ORE, while few researchers have explored the ORE in older people. Therefore, this study used behavioral and eye movement techniques to explore the influence of age on the ORE and the visual scanning pattern of Han subjects recognizing own- and other-ethnicity faces. All participants were asked to complete a study-recognition task for faces, and the behavioral results showed that the ORE of elderly Han subjects was significantly lower than that of young Han subjects. The results of eye movement showed that there were significant differences in the visual scanning pattern of young subjects in recognizing the faces of individuals of their own ethnicity and other ethnicities, which were mainly reflected in the differences in looking at the nose and mouth, while the differences were reduced in the elderly subjects. The elderly subjects used similar scanning patterns to recognize the own- and other-ethnicity faces. This indicates that as age increases, the ORE of older people in recognizing faces of those from different ethnic groups becomes weaker, and elderly subjects have more similar visual scanning patterns in recognizing faces of their own and other ethnicities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jialin Ma
- Facuty of Education, School of Psychology, Henan University, Kaifeng 475000, China; (R.Z.); (Y.L.)
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2
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Zeng G, Maylott SE, Leung TS, Messinger DS, Wang J, Simpson EA. Infant temperamental fear, pupil dilation, and gaze aversion from smiling strangers. Dev Psychobiol 2022; 64:e22324. [PMID: 36282740 DOI: 10.1002/dev.22324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
In childhood, higher levels of temperamental fear-an early-emerging proclivity to distress in the face of novelty-are associated with lower social responsivity and greater social anxiety. While the early emergence of temperamental fear in infancy is poorly understood, it is theorized to be driven by individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation to novel stimuli. The current study used eye tracking to capture infants' (N = 124) reactions to a video of a smiling stranger-a common social encounter-including infant gaze aversions from the stranger's face (indexing arousal regulation) and pupil dilation (indexing physiological reactivity), longitudinally at 2, 4, 6, and 8 months of age. Multilevel mixed-effects models indicated that more fearful infants took more time to look away from a smiling stranger's face than less fearful infants, suggesting that high-fear infants may have slower arousal regulation. At 2 and 4 months, more fearful infants also exhibited greater and faster pupil dilation before gaze aversions, consistent with greater physiological reactivity. Together, these findings suggest that individual differences in infants' gaze aversions and pupil dilation can index the development of fearful temperament in early infancy, facilitating the identification of, and interventions for, risk factors to social disruptions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangyu Zeng
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, USA
| | - Sarah E Maylott
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, USA.,Department of Psychology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA.,Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Tiffany S Leung
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, USA
| | - Daniel S Messinger
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, USA.,Departments of Pediatrics, Music Engineering, Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, USA
| | - Jue Wang
- Department of Psychology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
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3
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Leshin RA, Lei RF, Byrne M, Rhodes M. Who is a typical woman? Exploring variation in how race biases representations of gender across development. Dev Sci 2022; 25:e13175. [PMID: 34468071 PMCID: PMC8847246 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
From early in development, race biases how children think about gender-often in a manner that treats Black women as less typical and representative of women in general than White or Asian women. The present study (N = 89, ages 7-11; predominately Hispanic, White, and multi-racial children) examined the generalizability of this phenomenon across middle childhood and the mechanisms underlying variability in its development. Replicating prior work, children were slower and less accurate to categorize the gender of Black women compared to Asian or White women, as well as compared to Black men, suggesting that children perceived Black women as less representative of their gender. These effects were robust across age within a racially and ethnically diverse sample of children. Children's tendencies to view their own racial identities as expansive and flexible, however, attenuated these effects: Children with more flexible racial identities also had gender concepts that were more inclusive of Black women. In contrast, the tendency for race to bias children's gender representations was unrelated to children's multiple classification skill and racial essentialism. These findings shed light on the mechanisms underlying variation in how race biases gender across development, with critical implications for how children's own identities shape the development of intergroup cognition and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel A. Leshin
- New York University, Department of Psychology, 6 Washington Place, rm. 301, New York, NY 10003
| | - Ryan F. Lei
- Haverford College, Department of Psychology, 370 Lancaster Ave, Haverford, PA 19041
| | - Magnolia Byrne
- New York University, Department of Psychology, 6 Washington Place, rm. 301, New York, NY 10003
| | - Marjorie Rhodes
- New York University, Department of Psychology, 6 Washington Place, rm. 301, New York, NY 10003
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4
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Anzures G, Mildort M, Fennell E, Bell C, Soethe E. Race and early face-sensitive event-related potentials in children and adults. J Exp Child Psychol 2022; 214:105287. [PMID: 34507182 PMCID: PMC8691419 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2020] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Studies examining children's face perception have revealed developmental changes in early and face-sensitive event-related potential (ERP) components. Children also tend to show racial biases in their face perception and evaluation of others. The current study examined how early face-sensitive ERPs are influenced by face race in children and adults. A second objective examined face recognition proficiency and implicit racial bias in relation to ERP responses to own- and other-race faces. Electroencephalographic responses were recorded while Caucasian children and adults viewed Caucasian and East Asian faces. Participants also completed recognition tasks and an IAT with Caucasian and East Asian faces. Other-race faces elicited larger P100 amplitudes than own-race faces. Furthermore, adults with better other-race recognition proficiency showed larger P100 amplitude responses to other-race faces compared with adults with worse other-race recognition proficiency. In addition, larger implicit biases favoring own-race individuals were associated with larger P100 to N170 peak-to-peak amplitudes for other-race faces in adults. In contrast, larger implicit biases favoring own-race individuals were associated with smaller P100 to N170 peak-to-peak amplitudes for both own- and other-race faces in 8- to 10-year-olds. There was also an age-related decrease in P100 to N170 peak-to-peak amplitudes for own-race faces among 5- to 10-year-olds with better own-race recognition proficiency. The age-related decrease in N170 latency for other-race faces was also more pronounced in 5- to 10-year-olds with better other-race recognition proficiency. Thus, recognition proficiency and implicit racial bias are associated with early ERP responses in adults and children, but in different ways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gizelle Anzures
- Department of Psychology, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431 USA,FAU Brain Institute, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431 USA,Center for Complex Systems and Brain Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431 USA
| | - Melissa Mildort
- Department of Psychology, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431 USA
| | - Eli Fennell
- Department of Psychology, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431 USA
| | - Cassandra Bell
- Department of Psychology, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431 USA
| | - Elizabeth Soethe
- Department of Psychology, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431 USA
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5
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Chen J, Yuan P, Li H, Chen C, Jiang Y, Lee K. Music-reading expertise associates with face but not Chinese character processing ability. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2021; 75:854-868. [PMID: 34609210 DOI: 10.1177/17470218211053144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
A growing number of behavioural and neuroimaging studies have investigated the cognitive mechanisms and neural substrates underlying various forms of visual expertise, such as face and word processing. However, it remains poorly understood whether and to what extent the acquisition of one form of expertise would be associated with that of another. The current study examined the relationship between music-reading expertise and face and Chinese character processing abilities. In a series of experiments, music experts and novices performed discrimination and recognition tasks of musical notations, faces, and words. Results consistently showed that musical experts responded more accurately to musical notations and faces, but not to words, than did musical novices. More intriguingly, the music expert's age of training onset could well predict their face but not word processing performance: the earlier musical experts began musical notation reading, the better their face processing performance. Taken together, our findings provide preliminary and converging evidence that music-reading expertise links with face, but not word, processing, and lend support to the notion that the development of different types of visual expertise may not be independent, but rather interact with each other during their acquisition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Chen
- School of Educational Science, Cognition and Human Behavior Key Laboratory of Hunan Province, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, China
| | - Panpan Yuan
- School of Educational Science, Cognition and Human Behavior Key Laboratory of Hunan Province, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, China
| | - Hong Li
- School of Educational Science, Cognition and Human Behavior Key Laboratory of Hunan Province, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, China.,School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Changming Chen
- Department of Psychology, Xinyang Normal University, Xinyang, China
| | - Yi Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Science, Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Kang Lee
- Dr. Eric Jackman Institute of Child Study, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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6
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Zhou X, Itz ML, Vogt S, Kaufmann JM, Schweinberger SR, Mondloch CJ. Similar use of shape and texture cues for own- and other-race faces during face learning and recognition. Vision Res 2021; 188:32-41. [PMID: 34280815 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2021.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/19/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Although the other-race effect (ORE; superior recognition of own- relative to other-race faces) is well established, the mechanisms underlying it are not well understood. We examined whether the ORE is attributable to differential use of shape and texture cues for own- vs. other-race faces. Shape cues are particularly important for detecting that an own-race face is unfamiliar, whereas texture cues are more important for recognizing familiar and newly learned own-race faces. We compared the influence of shape and texture cues on Caucasian participants' recognition of Caucasian and East Asian faces using two complementary approaches. In Experiment 1, participants studied veridical, shape-caricatured, or texture-caricatured faces and then were asked to recognize them in an old/new recognition task. In Experiment 2, all study faces were veridical and we independently removed the diagnosticity of shape (or texture) cues in the test phase by replacing original shape (or texture) with average shape (or texture). Despite an overall own-race advantage, participants' use of shape and texture cues was comparable for own- and other-race faces. These results suggest that the other-race effect is not attributable to qualitative differences in the use of shape and texture cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomei Zhou
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Canada; Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada
| | - Marlena L Itz
- Department of General Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience, Institute of Psychology, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany; Department of Counseling and Clinical Intervention, Institute of Psychology, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Sandro Vogt
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Canada; Department of General Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience, Institute of Psychology, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Jürgen M Kaufmann
- Department of General Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience, Institute of Psychology, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Stefan R Schweinberger
- Department of General Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience, Institute of Psychology, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany
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7
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Du K, Hunter JA, Scarf D, Ruffman T. Chinese children's in-group favoritism is affected by age and gender. JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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8
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Haensel JX, Ishikawa M, Itakura S, Smith TJ, Senju A. Cultural influences on face scanning are consistent across infancy and adulthood. Infant Behav Dev 2020; 61:101503. [PMID: 33190091 PMCID: PMC7768814 DOI: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2020.101503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of cultural differences in face scanning is thought to be shaped by social experience. However, previous studies mainly investigated eye movements of adults and little is known about early development. The current study recorded eye movements of British and Japanese infants (aged 10 and 16 months) and adults, who were presented with static and dynamic faces on screen. Cultural differences were observed across all age groups, with British participants exhibiting more mouth scanning, and Japanese individuals showing increased central face (nose) scanning for dynamic stimuli. Age-related influences independent of culture were also revealed, with a shift from eye to mouth scanning between 10 and 16 months, while adults distributed their gaze more flexibly. Against our prediction, no age-related increases in cultural differences were observed, suggesting the possibility that cultural differences are largely manifest by 10 months of age. Overall, the findings suggest that individuals adopt visual strategies in line with their cultural background from early in infancy, pointing to the development of a highly adaptive face processing system that is shaped by early sociocultural experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer X Haensel
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet Street, London, WC1E 7HX, United Kingdom.
| | - Mitsuhiko Ishikawa
- Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
| | - Shoji Itakura
- Center for Baby Science, Doshisha University, 4-1-1 Kizugawadai, Kizugawa, Kyoto, 619-0225, Japan
| | - Tim J Smith
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet Street, London, WC1E 7HX, United Kingdom
| | - Atsushi Senju
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet Street, London, WC1E 7HX, United Kingdom
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9
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Gandolfo M, Downing PE. Asymmetric visual representation of sex from human body shape. Cognition 2020; 205:104436. [PMID: 32919115 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Revised: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
We efficiently infer others' states and traits from their appearance, and these inferences powerfully shape our social behaviour. One key trait is sex, which is strongly cued by the appearance of the body. What are the visual representations that link body shape to sex? Previous studies of visual sex judgment tasks find observers have a bias to report "male", particularly for ambiguous stimuli. This finding implies a representational asymmetry - that for the processes that generate a sex percept, the default output is "male", and "female" is determined by the presence of additional perceptual evidence. That is, female body shapes are positively coded by reference to a male default shape. This perspective makes a novel prediction in line with Treisman's studies of visual search asymmetries: female body targets should be more readily detected amongst male distractors than vice versa. Across 10 experiments (N = 32 each) we confirmed this prediction and ruled out alternative low-level explanations. The asymmetry was found with profile and frontal body silhouettes, frontal photographs, and schematised icons. Low-level confounds were controlled by balancing silhouette images for size and homogeneity, and by matching physical properties of photographs. The female advantage was nulled for inverted icons, but intact for inverted photographs, suggesting reliance on distinct cues to sex for different body depictions. Together, these findings demonstrate a principle of the perceptual coding that links bodily appearance with a significant social trait: the female body shape is coded as an extension of a male default. We conclude by offering a visual experience account of how these asymmetric representations arise in the first place.
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10
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Davis EE, Matthews CM, Mondloch CJ. Ensemble coding of facial identity is not refined by experience: Evidence from other‐race and inverted faces. Br J Psychol 2020; 112:265-281. [DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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11
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Wong HK, Stephen ID, Keeble DRT. The Own-Race Bias for Face Recognition in a Multiracial Society. Front Psychol 2020; 11:208. [PMID: 32210861 PMCID: PMC7067904 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The own-race bias (ORB) is a reliable phenomenon across cultural and racial groups where unfamiliar faces from other races are usually remembered more poorly than own-race faces (Meissner and Brigham, 2001). By adopting a yes-no recognition paradigm, we found that ORB was pronounced across race groups (Malaysian-Malay, Malaysian-Chinese, Malaysian-Indian, and Western-Caucasian) when faces were presented with only internal features (Experiment 1), implying that growing up in a profoundly multiracial society does not necessarily eliminate ORB. Using a procedure identical to Experiment 1, we observed a significantly greater increment in recognition performance for other-race faces than for own-race faces when the external features (e.g. facial contour and hairline) were presented along with the internal features (Experiment 2)-this abolished ORB. Contrary to assumptions based on the contact hypothesis, participants' self-reported amount of interracial contact on a social contact questionnaire did not significantly predict the magnitude of ORB. Overall, our findings suggest that the level of exposure to other-race faces accounts for only a small part of ORB. In addition, the present results also support the notion that different neural mechanisms may be involved in processing own- and other-race faces, with internal features of own-race faces being processed more effectively, whereas external features dominate representations of other-race faces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoo Keat Wong
- School of Psychology, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Semenyih, Malaysia
| | - Ian D. Stephen
- Department of Psychology, Macquarie University, Macquarie Park, NSW, Australia
- Perception in Action Research Centre, Macquarie University, Macquarie Park, NSW, Australia
| | - David R. T. Keeble
- School of Psychology, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Semenyih, Malaysia
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12
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Abstract
Social categorization is a universal mechanism for making sense of a vast social world with roots in perceptual, conceptual, and social systems. These systems emerge strikingly early in life and undergo important developmental changes across childhood. The development of social categorization entails identifying which ways of classifying people are culturally meaningful, how these categories might be used to predict, explain, and evaluate the behavior of other people, and how one's own identity relates to these systems of categorization and representation. Social categorization can help children simplify and understand their social environment but has detrimental consequences in the forms of stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. Thus, understanding how social categorization develops is a central problem for the cognitive, social, and developmental sciences. This review details the multiple developmental processes that underlie this core psychological capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjorie Rhodes
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA
| | - Andrew Baron
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
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13
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Lucas HD, Creery JD, Hu X, Paller KA. Grappling With Implicit Social Bias: A Perspective From Memory Research. Neuroscience 2019; 406:684-697. [PMID: 30742963 PMCID: PMC6511463 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2019.01.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Revised: 01/06/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
There is now widespread consensus that social biases often influence actions independently of the actor's intention or awareness. The notion that we are sometimes blind to the origins of our thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors also features prominently in research into domain-general human memory systems, which has a long history of distinguishing between implicit and explicit repercussions of past experience. A shared challenge across these fields of study is thus to identify techniques for effectively managing the contents of our memory stores, particularly those aspects into which we have limited metacognitive insight. In the present review, we examine recent developments in the cognitive neuroscience of human memory that speak to this challenge as it applies to the social domain. One area of progress pertains to the role of individuation, the process of attending to and representing in memory unique characteristics of individuals, which can limit the influence of generalizations based on social categories. A second body of work concerns breakthroughs in understanding memory consolidation, which determines the fate of newly encoded memories. We discuss the promise of each of these developments for identifying ways to become better stewards of our social minds. More generally, we suggest that, as with other forms of learning and memory, intentional practice and rehearsal may be critical in learning to minimize unwanted biases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather D Lucas
- Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA.
| | - Jessica D Creery
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience Program, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Xiaoqing Hu
- Department of Psychology, The State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Ken A Paller
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience Program, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.
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14
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Similarity between an unfamiliar human and the owner affects dogs' preference for human partner when responding to an unsolvable problem. Learn Behav 2019; 46:430-441. [PMID: 30022446 DOI: 10.3758/s13420-018-0337-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
This study investigates whether dogs are able to differentiate between people according to whether or not they show similarities to their owners. We hypothesized that dogs would show a preference for the "similar" partner when interacting with unfamiliar humans. After having familiarized with two experimenters displaying different degrees of similarity to their owners, dogs (N = 36) participated in a situation where the desired toy object was made inaccessible in order to find out whether they initiate interaction with the two partners differently. Two different types of "similarity cues" were used (either alone or combined with each other): (1) persistent behavioral characteristics (i.e., familiar vs. strange motion pattern and language usage) and (2) an unfamiliar arbitrary group marker (i.e., one of the potential helpers was wearing clothing similar to that worn by the owner). Results show that although dogs payed equal attention to the human partners displaying various types of similarity to their owners during familiarization, they exhibited a visual attention preference for the human whose motion pattern and language usage were similar to their owner's in the inaccessible-toy task. However, there was weak evidence of discrimination based on the arbitrary group marker (clothing). Although dogs' different tendencies to interact with the potential helpers do not necessarily imply an underlying ability to create social categories based on the degree of similarity between the owner and unfamiliar people, these results suggest that functionally human infant-analogue forms of social categorization may have emerged in dogs.
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15
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Anderson JR, Holland E, Heldreth C, Johnson SP. Revisiting the Jezebel Stereotype. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2018. [DOI: 10.1177/0361684318791543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The overt objectification and dehumanization of Black people has a long history throughout the Western world. However, few researchers have explored whether such perceptions still persist implicitly and whether Black women are sexually objectified at an interpersonal level. We sought to address this gap by exploring whether Black women are sexually objectified to a greater extent than White women and whether target sexualization exacerbates this effect. In Study 1, using eye-tracking technology ( N = 38), we provide evidence that individuals attend more often, and for longer durations, to the sexual body parts of Black women compared to White women, particularly when presented in a sexualized manner. In Studies 2a ( N = 120) and 2b ( N = 131), we demonstrated that Black women are implicitly associated with both animals and objects to a greater degree than White women with a Go/No-Go Association Task. We discuss the implications of such dehumanizing treatment of Black people and Black women in U.S. society. We hope that this evidence will increase awareness that objectification can happen outside the realm of conscious thought and that related interventions ought to include an ethnicity-specific component. Additional online materials for this article, including online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching, are available on PWQ's website at http://journals.sagepub.com/page/pwq/suppl/index
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel R. Anderson
- School of Psychology, Australian Catholic University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Elise Holland
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Courtney Heldreth
- Psychology Department, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Scott P. Johnson
- Psychology Department, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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16
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Proietti V, Rigoldi M, Croci E, Macchi Cassia V. Sibling experience modulates perceptual narrowing toward adult faces in the first year of life. Dev Psychobiol 2018. [PMID: 29528119 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
During the first year of life face discrimination abilities narrow toward adult human faces of the most frequently encountered ethnic group/s. Earlier studies showed that perceptual learning under laboratory-training protocols can modulate this narrowing process. Here we investigated whether natural experience acquired in everyday settings with an older sibling's face can shape the trajectory of perceptual narrowing towards adult faces. Using an infant-controlled habituation procedure we measured discrimination of adult (Experiment 1) and child faces (Experiment 2) in 3- and 9- month-old infants with and without a child sibling. Discrimination of adult faces was observed for infants at both ages, although accompanied by posthabituation preferences in opposite directions, whereas at both ages the discrimination of child faces critically depended on sibling experience. These results provide the first evidence that natural experience acquired with siblings affects the tuning properties of infant face representation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Proietti
- Department of Psychology, Nipissing University, North Bay, Ontario, Canada.,NeuroMi, Milan Center for Neuroscience, Milan, Italy
| | - Marta Rigoldi
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Emanuela Croci
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Viola Macchi Cassia
- NeuroMi, Milan Center for Neuroscience, Milan, Italy.,Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
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Lee K, Quinn PC, Pascalis O. Face race processing and racial bias in early development: A perceptual-social linkage. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2017; 26:256-262. [PMID: 28751824 DOI: 10.1177/0963721417690276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Infants have asymmetrical exposure to different types of faces (e.g., more human than other-species, more female than male, and more own-race than other-race). What are the developmental consequences of such experiential asymmetry? Here we review recent advances in research on the development of cross-race face processing. The evidence suggests that greater exposure to own- than other-race faces in infancy leads to developmentally early perceptual differences in visual preference, recognition, category formation, and scanning of own- and other-race faces. Further, such perceptual differences in infancy may be associated with the emergence of implicit racial bias, consistent with a Perceptual-Social Linkage Hypothesis. Current and future work derived from this hypothesis may lay an important empirical foundation for the development of intervention programs to combat the early occurrence of implicit racial bias.
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Ellis AE, Xiao NG, Lee K, Oakes LM. Scanning of own- versus other-race faces in infants from racially diverse or homogenous communities. Dev Psychobiol 2017; 59:613-627. [PMID: 28577346 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Revised: 02/17/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
We examined the role of community face experience on 6- and 8-month-old Caucasian infants' scanning of own- and other-race face scanning. We measured infants' proportional fixation time and scan path amplitudes as indices of face processing. Proportional fixation time to informationally rich face regions varied as a function of age and face race for infants living in a racially homogeneous community, whereas scan path amplitudes varied as a function of age and face race for infants living in a racially diverse community. In both communities 6-month-old infants did not show different responding to own- and other-race faces, whereas 8-month-old infants responded differently to own- and other-race faces. However, 8-month-old infants from the two communities showed different patterns of cross-race face scanning. Therefore, experience in the community beyond the home appears to contribute to the development of differential scanning of own- versus other-race faces between 6 and 8 months of age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann E Ellis
- Department of Psychology, Grinnell College, Grinnell, Iowa
| | - Naiqi G Xiao
- Dr. Eric Jackman Institute of Child Study, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kang Lee
- Dr. Eric Jackman Institute of Child Study, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Lisa M Oakes
- Department of Psychology and Center for Mind and Brain, UC Davis, Davis, California
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Singarajah A, Chanley J, Gutierrez Y, Cordon Y, Nguyen B, Burakowski L, Johnson SP. Infant attention to same- and other-race faces. Cognition 2017; 159:76-84. [PMID: 27894007 PMCID: PMC5186363 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2016.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2016] [Revised: 10/31/2016] [Accepted: 11/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
We recorded visual attention to same- and other-race faces in Hispanic and White 11-month-old infants, an age at which face processing is presumably biased by an own-race recognition advantage. Infants viewed pairs of faces differing in race or ethnicity as their eye movements were recorded. We discovered consistently greater attention to Black over Hispanic faces, to Black faces over White faces, and to Hispanic over White faces. Inversion of face stimuli, and infant ethnicity, had little effect on performance. Infants' social environments, however, differed sharply according to ethnicity: Hispanic infants are almost exclusively exposed to Hispanic family members, and White infants to White family members. Moreover, Hispanic infants inhabit communities that are more racially and ethnically diverse. These results imply that race-based visual attention in infancy is closely aligned with the larger society's racial and ethnic composition, as opposed to race-based recognition, which is more closely aligned with infants' immediate social environments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jill Chanley
- University of California, Los Angeles, United States
| | | | | | - Bryan Nguyen
- University of California, Los Angeles, United States
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20
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Zhou G, Liu J, Ding XP, Fu G, Lee K. Development of Effective Connectivity during Own- and Other-Race Face Processing: A Granger Causality Analysis. Front Hum Neurosci 2016; 10:474. [PMID: 27713696 PMCID: PMC5031708 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous developmental studies have suggested that other-race effect (ORE) in face recognition emerges as early as in infancy and develops steadily throughout childhood. However, there is very limited research on the neural mechanisms underlying this developmental ORE. The present study used Granger causality analysis (GCA) to examine the development of children's cortical networks in processing own- and other-race faces. Children were between 3 and 13 years. An old-new paradigm was used to assess their own- and other-race face recognition with ETG-4000 (Hitachi Medical Co., Japan) acquiring functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) data. After preprocessing, for each participant and under each face condition, we obtained the causal map by calculating the weights of causal relations between the time courses of [oxy-Hb] of each pair of channels using GCA. To investigate further the differential causal connectivity for own-race faces and other-race faces at the group level, a repeated measure analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the GCA weights for each pair of channels with the face race task (own-race face vs. other-race face) as the within-subject variable and the age as a between-subject factor (continuous variable). We found an age-related increase in functional connectivity, paralleling a similar age-related improvement in behavioral face processing ability. More importantly, we found that the significant differences in neural functional connectivity between the recognition of own-race faces and that of other-race faces were modulated by age. Thus, like the behavioral ORE, the neural ORE emerges early and undergoes a protracted developmental course.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guifei Zhou
- School of Computer and Information Technology, Beijing Jiaotong UniversityBeijing, China
| | - Jiangang Liu
- School of Computer and Information Technology, Beijing Jiaotong UniversityBeijing, China
| | - Xiao Pan Ding
- Dr. Eric Jackman Institute of Child Study, University of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychology, National University of SingaporeSingapore, Singapore
| | - Genyue Fu
- Department of Psychology, Hangzhou Normal UniversityHangzhou, China
| | - Kang Lee
- Dr. Eric Jackman Institute of Child Study, University of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal UniversityJinhua, China
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21
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Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder scan own-race faces differently from other-race faces. J Exp Child Psychol 2016; 141:177-86. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2015.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Revised: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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22
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Qian MK, Heyman GD, Quinn PC, Messi FA, Fu G, Lee K. Implicit Racial Biases in Preschool Children and Adults From Asia and Africa. Child Dev 2015; 87:285-96. [PMID: 26435128 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This research used an Implicit Racial Bias Test to investigate implicit racial biases among 3- to 5-year-olds and adult participants in China (N = 213) and Cameroon (N = 257). In both cultures, participants displayed high levels of racial biases that remained stable between 3 and 5 years of age. Unlike adults, young children's implicit racial biases were unaffected by the social status of the other-race groups. Also, unlike adults, young children displayed overt explicit racial biases, and these biases were dissociated from their implicit biases. The results provide strong evidence for the early emergence of implicit racial biases and point to the need to reduce them in early childhood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao K Qian
- Hangzhou Normal University.,University of Toronto
| | - Gail D Heyman
- University of California, San Diego.,Zhejiang Normal University
| | | | | | | | - Kang Lee
- University of Toronto.,University of California, San Diego.,Zhejiang Normal University
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Peykarjou S, Pauen S, Hoehl S. 9-Month-Old Infants Recognize Individual Unfamiliar Faces in a Rapid Repetition ERP Paradigm. INFANCY 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/infa.12118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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24
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Yi L, Quinn PC, Feng C, Li J, Ding H, Lee K. Do individuals with autism spectrum disorder process own- and other-race faces differently? Vision Res 2014; 107:124-32. [PMID: 25542277 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2014.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2014] [Revised: 11/09/2014] [Accepted: 11/12/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) process human faces in atypical ways according to previous literature. We investigated whether individuals with ASD can process face race information and respond to own- and other-race faces differentially. Chinese individuals with ASD (n=24), typically developing (TD) individuals (n=28), and individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID, n=26) were asked to recognize Chinese and Caucasian faces in an old-new face paradigm using eye tracking. In terms of recognition, the ASD and ID groups did not perform differently and displayed superior own-race recognition compared with other-race faces; TD participants displayed similar recognition of the two types of faces. In terms of eye tracking, the TD, ASD, and ID groups displayed more looking on the eyes and less looking on the nose and mouth of Caucasian faces relative to Chinese faces. Overall, individuals with ASD manifested a behavioral other-race effect and displayed the same type of cross-racial differentiation in face scanning observed in TD individuals. The findings suggest that as is the case with TD individuals, face processing of individuals with ASD is influenced by differences in visual experience with different face categories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Yi
- Department of Psychology, Sun Yat-sen University, China.
| | - Paul C Quinn
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, USA
| | - Cong Feng
- Department of Philosophy, Sun Yat-sen University, China; Institute of Logic and Cognition, Sun Yat-sen University, China
| | - Jiao Li
- Department of Psychology, Sun Yat-sen University, China
| | - Haiyan Ding
- Guangzhou Zhanneng Vocational Training Center for the Disabled, China
| | - Kang Lee
- Dr. Eric Jackman Institute of Child Study, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada; School of Education, Zhejiang Normal University, China.
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25
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Dahl CD, Chen CC, Rasch MJ. Own-race and own-species advantages in face perception: a computational view. Sci Rep 2014; 4:6654. [PMID: 25323815 PMCID: PMC4200398 DOI: 10.1038/srep06654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2014] [Accepted: 09/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The frequency to which an organism is exposed to a particular type of face influences recognition performance. For example, Asians are better in individuating Asian than Caucasian faces, known as the own-race advantage. Similarly, humans in general are better in individuating human than monkey faces, known as the own-species advantage. It is an open question whether the underlying mechanisms causing these effects are similar. We hypothesize that these processes are governed by neural plasticity of the face discrimination system to retain optimal discrimination performance in its environment. Using common face features derived from a set of images from various face classes, we show that maximizing the feature variance between different individuals while ensuring minimal variance within individuals achieved good discrimination performances on own-class faces when selecting a subset of feature dimensions. Further, the selected subset of features does not necessarily lead to an optimal performance on the other class of faces. Thus, the face discrimination system continuously re-optimizes its space constraint face representation to optimize recognition performance on the current distribution of faces in its environment. This model can account for both, the own-race and own-species advantages. We name this approach Space Constraint Optimized Representational Embedding (SCORE).
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph D. Dahl
- Department of Psychology, National Taiwan University, Roosevelt Road, Taipei, Taiwan (ROC)
| | - Chien-Chung Chen
- Department of Psychology, National Taiwan University, Roosevelt Road, Taipei, Taiwan (ROC)
| | - Malte J. Rasch
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, China
- Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, China
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26
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Dunham Y, Stepanova EV, Dotsch R, Todorov A. The development of race-based perceptual categorization: skin color dominates early category judgments. Dev Sci 2014; 18:469-83. [PMID: 25154647 DOI: 10.1111/desc.12228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2013] [Accepted: 06/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Prior research on the development of race-based categorization has concluded that children understand the perceptual basis of race categories from as early as age 4 (e.g. Aboud, 1988). However, such work has rarely separated the influence of skin color from other physiognomic features considered by adults to be diagnostic of race categories. In two studies focusing on Black-White race categorization judgments in children between the ages of 4 and 9, as well as in adults, we find that categorization decisions in early childhood are determined almost entirely by attention to skin color, with attention to other physiognomic features exerting only a small influence on judgments as late as middle childhood. We further find that when skin color cues are largely eliminated from the stimuli, adults readily shift almost entirely to focus on other physiognomic features. However, 6- and 8-year-old children show only a limited ability to shift attention to facial physiognomy and so perform poorly on the task. These results demonstrate that attention to 'race' in younger children is better conceptualized as attention to skin color, inviting a reinterpretation of past work focusing on children's race-related cognition.
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Ito TA, Senholzi KB. Us versus them: Understanding the process of race perception with event-related brain potentials. VISUAL COGNITION 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2013.821430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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28
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29
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Scott LS, Fava E. The own-species face bias: A review of developmental and comparative data. VISUAL COGNITION 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2013.821431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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30
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Bruce V. Coda. VISUAL COGNITION 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2013.867176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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31
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Meissner CA, Susa KJ, Ross AB. Can I see your passport please? Perceptual discrimination of own- and other-race faces. VISUAL COGNITION 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2013.832451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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32
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Herlitz A, Lovén J. Sex differences and the own-gender bias in face recognition: A meta-analytic review. VISUAL COGNITION 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2013.823140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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33
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Wiese H, Komes J, Schweinberger SR. Ageing faces in ageing minds: A review on the own-age bias in face recognition. VISUAL COGNITION 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2013.823139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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