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Otero I, Martínez A, Cuadrado D, Lado M, Moscoso S, Salgado JF. Sex Differences in Cognitive Reflection: A Meta-Analysis. J Intell 2024; 12:39. [PMID: 38667706 PMCID: PMC11051326 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence12040039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Revised: 03/10/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The current study presents a meta-analytic review of the differences between men and women in cognitive reflection (CR). The study also explores whether the type of CR test (i.e., numerical tests and verbal tests) moderates the relationship between CR and sex. The results showed that men score higher than women on CR, although the magnitude of these differences was small. We also found out that the type of CR test moderates the sex differences in CR, especially in the numerical tests. In addition, the results showed that the length of numerical tests (i.e., number of items) does not affect the differences between men and women in CR. Finally, the implications of these results are discussed, and future research is suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inmaculada Otero
- Faculty of Labour Relations, University of Santiago de Compostela, Campus Vida, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; (A.M.); (D.C.); (M.L.); (S.M.); (J.F.S.)
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2
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O’Connor PA, Morsanyi K, McCormack T. Basic Symbolic Number Skills, but Not Formal Mathematics Performance, Longitudinally Predict Mathematics Anxiety in the First Years of Primary School. J Intell 2023; 11:211. [PMID: 37998710 PMCID: PMC10672261 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence11110211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Mathematical anxiety (MA) and mathematics performance typically correlate negatively in studies of adolescents and adults, but not always amongst young children, with some theorists questioning the relevance of MA to mathematics performance in this age group. Evidence is also limited in relation to the developmental origins of MA and whether MA in young children can be linked to their earlier mathematics performance. To address these questions, the current study investigated whether basic and formal mathematics skills around 4 and 5 years of age were predictive of MA around the age of 7-8. Additionally, we also examined the cross-sectional relationships between MA and mathematics performance in 7-8-year-old children. Specifically, children in our study were assessed in their first (T1; aged 4-5), second (T2; aged 5-6), and fourth years of school (T3; aged 7-8). At T1 and T2, children completed measures of basic numerical skills, IQ, and working memory, as well as curriculum-based mathematics tests. At T3, children completed two self-reported MA questionnaires, together with a curriculum-based mathematics test. The results showed that MA could be reliably measured in a sample of 7-8-year-olds and demonstrated the typical negative correlation between MA and mathematical performance (although the strength of this relationship was dependent on the specific content domain). Importantly, although early formal mathematical skills were unrelated to later MA, there was evidence of a longitudinal relationship between basic early symbolic number skills and later MA, supporting the idea that poorer basic numerical skills relate to the development of MA.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kinga Morsanyi
- Mathematics Education Centre, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK;
| | - Teresa McCormack
- School of Psychology, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5AG, UK;
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3
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Ackerman R, Morsanyi K. We know what stops you from thinking forever: A metacognitive perspective. Behav Brain Sci 2023; 46:e112. [PMID: 37462212 DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x22003065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/20/2023]
Abstract
This commentary addresses omissions in De Neys's model of fast-and-slow thinking from a metacognitive perspective. We review well-established meta-reasoning monitoring (e.g., confidence) and control processes (e.g., rethinking) that explain mental effort regulation. Moreover, we point to individual, developmental, and task design considerations that affect this regulation. These core issues are completely ignored or mentioned in passing in the target article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rakefet Ackerman
- Faculty of Data and Decision Sciences, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel ; technion.ac.il
| | - Kinga Morsanyi
- Centre for Mathematical Cognition, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK ; lboro.ac.uk
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Morsanyi K, Hamilton J. The Development of Intuitive and Analytic Thinking in Autism: The Case of Cognitive Reflection. J Intell 2023; 11:124. [PMID: 37367526 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence11060124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The cognitive reflection test (CRT) is a short measure of a person's ability to resist intuitive response tendencies, and to produce normatively correct responses that are assumed to be based on effortful, analytic thinking. A remarkable characteristic of the CRT is that although the questions are open-ended, for each item, the vast majority of people either produce a correct, analytic response or a typical incorrect (i.e., intuitive) response. This unique feature of the CRT makes it possible to investigate the question of whether autistic and neurotypical people share the same intuitions. We report a study that included adolescents and young adults. In both age groups, autistic and neurotypical participants were matched on age, gender, cognitive ability, and educational background. In line with previous findings, the results showed an age-related increase in analytic responding on the CRT, and a decrease in intuitive responding. Crucially, the proportion of both intuitive and analytic responses across autistic and neurotypical participants was identical in both age groups. The current results are in contrast with claims that autistic individuals have an increased tendency toward an analytic/rational type of processing, which is commonly attributed to an impairment within their intuitive reasoning mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kinga Morsanyi
- Department of Mathematics Education, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK
- School of Psychology, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT7 1NN, UK
| | - Jayne Hamilton
- School of Psychology, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT7 1NN, UK
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Vos H, Marinova M, De Léon SC, Sasanguie D, Reynvoet B. Gender differences in young adults' mathematical performance: Examining the contribution of working memory, math anxiety and gender-related stereotypes. LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2022.102255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Cognitive reflection test: The effects of the items sequence on scores and response time. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0279982. [PMID: 36626375 PMCID: PMC9831300 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0279982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
This paper aims to expand the literature on the determinants of the Cognitive Reflection Test scores, exploring the effects that the items sequence has on (1) Cognitive Reflection Test scores, (2) response time, (3) the relationship between Cognitive Reflection Test scores and response time, and (4) Cognitive Reflection scores, response time, and the relationship between both variables on men and women. The current study also explored the sex differences on Cognitive Reflection Test and response time according to items sequence. The results showed that manipulating the items sequence, the performance on the Cognitive Reflection Test improved significantly, but the response time were not significantly affected, although the results suggest that first items of the sequence could be working as training items. A positive relationship between Cognitive Reflection Test scores and response time was also found, except when the scores were maximized. Finally, some differences between men and women on the results were also found. The implications of these findings are discussed.
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7
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Otero I, Salgado JF, Moscoso S. Cognitive reflection, cognitive intelligence, and cognitive abilities: A meta-analysis. INTELLIGENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2021.101614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Gambetti E, Marinello F, Zucchelli MM, Nori R, Giusberti F. Fast thoughts and metacognitive feelings: The role of cognitive styles. JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DECISION MAKING 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/bdm.2225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Gambetti
- Department of Psychology University of Bologna Bologna Italy
| | - Fabio Marinello
- Department of Psychology University of Bologna Bologna Italy
| | | | - Raffaella Nori
- Department of Psychology University of Bologna Bologna Italy
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Sirota M, Dewberry C, Juanchich M, Valuš L, Marshall AC. Measuring cognitive reflection without maths: Development and validation of the verbal cognitive reflection test. JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DECISION MAKING 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/bdm.2213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Chris Dewberry
- Department of Organizational Psychology, Birkbeck University of London London UK
| | | | - Lenka Valuš
- Institute of Experimental Psychology, Centre of Social and Psychological Sciences Slovak Academy of Sciences Bratislava Slovakia
| | - Amanda C. Marshall
- Department of General and Experimental Psychology Ludwig‐Maximilians University Munich Germany
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10
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Purcell ZA, Wastell CA, Sweller N. Domain-specific experience and dual-process thinking. THINKING & REASONING 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/13546783.2020.1793813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zoë A. Purcell
- Department of Psychology, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Colin A. Wastell
- Department of Psychology, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Naomi Sweller
- Department of Psychology, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
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Jiang R, Liu RD, Star J, Zhen R, Wang J, Hong W, Jiang S, Sun Y, Fu X. How mathematics anxiety affects students' inflexible perseverance in mathematics problem-solving: Examining the mediating role of cognitive reflection. BRITISH JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 2020; 91:237-260. [PMID: 32567682 DOI: 10.1111/bjep.12364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Too many students persevere in relying upon one (sometimes suboptimal) strategy for solving a wide range of problems, even when they know more efficient strategies. Although many studies have mentioned such phenomena, few studies have examined how emotional factors could affect this type of inflexible perseverance in strategy use. AIMS To examine whether mathematics anxiety could affect students' inflexible perseverance in strategy use and whether this effect could be mediated by cognitive reflection, which is the ability to engage in deliberate reasoning. SAMPLE AND METHOD In Study 1, 164 undergraduate students' (18-22 years) mathematics anxiety, cognitive reflection, and performance in overcoming inflexible perseverance were measured by a questionnaire battery. Structural equation models were used to examine the correlations between these variables. In Study 2, 98 undergraduate freshmen (17-18 years) were assigned to two groups, where one group's mathematics anxiety was temporarily induced by task instructions, while the other group served as a control group. Cognitive reflection and inflexible perseverance of the two groups were compared. RESULTS Study 1 showed that mathematics anxiety was negatively correlated with students' performance on overcoming inflexible perseverance, while cognitive reflection mediated such an effect. Study 2 showed that compared to the control group, the experimental group showed lower cognitive reflection, which led to lower performance in overcoming inflexible perseverance. CONCLUSIONS Mathematics anxiety was showed to impair students' ability to engage in deliberate reasoning and was associated with inflexible use of strategies. Alleviating students' mathematics anxiety should be considered when promoting students' strategic flexibility.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ru-de Liu
- Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, China
| | - Jon Star
- Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Rui Zhen
- Institute of Psychological Science, Hangzhou Normal University, China
| | - Jia Wang
- Teachers' College, Beijing Union University, China
| | - Wei Hong
- Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, China
| | - Shuyang Jiang
- Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, China
| | - Yan Sun
- Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, China
| | - Xinchen Fu
- Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, China
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12
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Primi C, Donati MA, Izzo VA, Guardabassi V, O'Connor PA, Tomasetto C, Morsanyi K. The Early Elementary School Abbreviated Math Anxiety Scale (the EES-AMAS): A New Adapted Version of the AMAS to Measure Math Anxiety in Young Children. Front Psychol 2020; 11:1014. [PMID: 32528380 PMCID: PMC7253683 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
In the past decade, there has been increasing interest in understanding how and when math anxiety (MA) develops. The incidence and effects of MA in primary school children, and its relations with math achievement, have been investigated. Nevertheless, only a few studies have focused on the first years of primary school, highlighting that initial signs of MA may emerge as early as 6 years of age. Nevertheless, there are some issues with measuring MA in young children. One of these is that, although several scales have been recently developed for this age group, the psychometric properties of most of these instruments have not been adequately tested. There is also no agreement in the number and identity of the factors that underlie MA at this young age. Some scales also consist of several items, which make them impractical to use in multivariate studies, which aim at the simultaneous measurement of several constructs. Finally, most scales have been developed and validated in US populations, and it is unclear if they are appropriate to be used in other countries. In order to address these issues, the current studies aimed at developing a short, new instrument to assess MA in early elementary school students, the Early Elementary School Abbreviated Math Anxiety Scale (the EES-AMAS). This scale is an adapted version of the Abbreviated Math Anxiety Scale (AMAS; Hopko et al., 2003), which is one of the most commonly used scales to measure MA and has been shown to be a valid and reliable measure across a number of countries and age groups. The psychometric properties of the new scale have been investigated by taking into account its dimensionality, reliability, and validity. Moreover, the gender invariance of the scale has been verified by showing the measurement equivalence of the scale when administered to male and female pupils. We have also demonstrated the equivalence of the scale across languages (Italian and English). Overall, the findings confirmed the validity and reliability of the new scale in assessing the early signs of math anxiety and in measuring differences between genders and educational contexts. We have also shown that MA was already related to math performance, and teacher’s ratings of children’s math ability at this young age. Additionally, we have found no gender differences in MA in our samples of 6- and 7-year-old children, an important finding, given the strong evidence for gender differences in MA in older age groups.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maria A Donati
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Viola A Izzo
- NEUROFARBA, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | | | | | - Carlo Tomasetto
- Department of Psychology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Kinga Morsanyi
- School of Psychology, Queen's University, Belfast, United Kingdom
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Maldonado Moscoso PA, Anobile G, Primi C, Arrighi R. Math Anxiety Mediates the Link Between Number Sense and Math Achievements in High Math Anxiety Young Adults. Front Psychol 2020; 11:1095. [PMID: 32528392 PMCID: PMC7264265 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
In the past few years, many studies have suggested that subjects with high sensory precision in the processing of non-symbolic numerical quantities (approximate number system; ANS) also have higher math abilities. At the same time, there has been interest in another non-cognitive factor affecting mathematical learning: mathematical anxiety (MA). MA is defined as a debilitating emotional reaction to mathematics that interferes with the manipulation of numbers and the solving of mathematical problems. Few studies have been dedicated to uncovering the interplay between ANS and MA and those have provided conflicting evidence. Here we measured ANS precision (numerosity discrimination thresholds) in a cohort of university students with either a high (>75th percentile; n = 49) or low (<25th percentile; n = 39) score on the Abbreviate Math Anxiety Scale (AMAS). We also assessed math proficiency using a standardized test (MPP: Mathematics Prerequisites for Psychometrics), visuo-spatial attention capacity by means of a Multiple Objects Tracking task (MOT) and sensory precision for non-numerical quantities (disk size). Our results confirmed previous studies showing that math abilities and ANS precision correlate in subjects with high math anxiety. Neither precision in size-discrimination nor visuo-spatial attentional capacity were found to correlate with math capacities. Interestingly, within the group with high MA, our data also revealed a relationship between ANS precision and MA, with MA playing a key role in mediating the correlation between ANS and math achievement. Taken together, our results suggest an interplay between extreme levels of MA and the sensory precision in the processing of non-symbolic numerosity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Giovanni Anobile
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Pharmacology and Child Health, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Caterina Primi
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Pharmacology and Child Health, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Roberto Arrighi
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Pharmacology and Child Health, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
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Navarrete JA, Sandoval-Díaz JS. Does cognitive reflection mediate the math gender gap at university admission in Chile? SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11218-020-09545-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Rolison JJ, Morsanyi K, Peters E. Understanding Health Risk Comprehension: The Role of Math Anxiety, Subjective Numeracy, and Objective Numeracy. Med Decis Making 2020; 40:222-234. [PMID: 32052694 PMCID: PMC7502983 DOI: 10.1177/0272989x20904725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Background. Numeracy skills are important for medical decision making as lower numeracy is associated with misinterpreting statistical health risks. Math anxiety, characterized by negative emotions about numerical tasks, and lower subjective numeracy (i.e., self-assessments of numerical competence) are also associated with poor risk comprehension. Objective. To explore independent and mediated associations of math anxiety, numerical ability, and subjective numeracy with risk comprehension and to ascertain whether their associations are specific to the health domain. Methods. Objective numeracy was measured with a 14-item test. Math anxiety and subjective numeracy were assessed with self-report scales. Risk comprehension was measured with a 12-item test. In experiment 1, risk comprehension items were limited to scenarios in the health domain. In experiment 2, participants were randomly assigned to receive numerically equivalent risk comprehension items in either a health or nonhealth domain. Results. Linear regression analyses revealed that individuals with higher objective numeracy were more likely to respond correctly to the risk comprehension items, as were individuals with higher subjective numeracy. Higher math anxiety was associated with a lower likelihood of correct responding when controlling for objective numeracy but not when controlling for subjective numeracy. Mediation analyses indicated that math anxiety may undermine risk comprehension in 3 ways, including through 1) objective numeracy, 2) subjective numeracy, and 3) objective and subjective numeracy in serial, with subjective numeracy mediating the association between objective numeracy and risk comprehension. Findings did not differ by domain. Conclusions. Math anxiety, objective numeracy, and subjective numeracy are associated with risk comprehension through unique pathways. Education initiatives for improving health risk comprehension may be most effective if jointly aimed at tackling numerical ability as well as negative emotions and self-evaluations related to numeracy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kinga Morsanyi
- School of Psychology, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, GB, UK
| | - Ellen Peters
- School of Journalism and Communication, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
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Juanchich M, Sirota M, Bonnefon J. Anxiety‐induced miscalculations, more than differential inhibition of intuition, explain the gender gap in cognitive reflection. JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DECISION MAKING 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/bdm.2165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jean‐François Bonnefon
- Toulouse School of Economics (TSM‐R) CNRS, University of Toulouse Capitole Toulouse France
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Morsanyi K, Prado J, Richland LE. Editorial: The role of reasoning in mathematical thinking. THINKING & REASONING 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/13546783.2018.1435425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kinga Morsanyi
- School of Psychology, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Jérôme Prado
- CNRS, Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, Bron, France
| | - Lindsey E. Richland
- Department of Comparative Human Development, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
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