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Özen-Akın G, Cinan S. The lack of Aha! experience can be dependent on the problem difficulty. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2024; 88:1522-1539. [PMID: 38630293 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-024-01960-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024]
Abstract
Previous research on how problem-difficulty affects solution-types of insight-problems has yielded contradictory findings. Thus, we aimed to examine the impact of problem-difficulty on solution-types in both inter- and intra-problem-difficulty contexts. For this, we employed the original 8-coin, and 9-dot problems and four hinted-versions of those that were manipulated by using hints-to-remove-sources-of-difficulty to alter their difficulty level. Those manipulations were executed based on the assumptions of constraint-relaxation and chunk-decomposition as posited by representational change theory. The study involved a total of 165 participants who were tested in five groups (33 per se), with each group receiving an original or hinted problem. Following their correct solutions, problem-solvers classified their solution-types (insight or non-insight solutions) by whether they had an Aha!-experience during the solution. Across all groups, 56.1% of correctly solved insight problems were solved with Aha!-experience, based on participants' self-reports, implying that correct solutions should not be equated with insight. Subsequently, the solution-type rates were compared for both original problems (inter-problem-difficulty) and hinted versions of those at each difficulty level (intra-problem-difficulty). Inter-problem-difficulty comparisons demonstrated that the easier 8-coin problem was more likely to be solved with insight than the harder 9-dot problem. In contrast, intra-problem-difficulty comparisons revealed that harder problems were more likely to be solved with insight. These findings suggest that problem-difficulty should be considered in future studies of insight. Finally, separate analyses on the predictive values of the cognitive-affective-dimensions on solution-types revealed that, after adjusting for problem-difficulty, problem-solvers with higher suddenness scores in both problems exhibited a significantly higher probability of generating insight solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaye Özen-Akın
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science and Letters, Kırklareli University, 39100, Kayalı, Kırklareli, Türkiye.
| | - Sevtap Cinan
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Letters, Istanbul University, 34134, Fatih, Istanbul, Türkiye
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Stuyck H, Demeyer F, Bratanov C, Cleeremans A, Van den Bussche E. Insight and non-insight problem solving: A heart rate variability study. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2024; 77:1462-1484. [PMID: 37688497 DOI: 10.1177/17470218231202519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/11/2023]
Abstract
Occasionally, problems are solved with a sudden Aha! moment (insight), while the mundane approach to solving problems is analytical (non-insight). At first glance, non-insight appears to depend on the availability and taxation of cognitive resources to execute the step-by-step approach, whereas insight does not, or to a lesser extent. However, this remains debated. To investigate the reliance of both solution types on cognitive resources, we assessed the involvement of the prefrontal cortex using vagally mediated heart rate variability (vmHRV) as an index. Participants (N = 68) solved 70 compound remote associates word puzzles solvable with insight and non-insight. Before, during, and after solving the word puzzles, we measured the vmHRV. Our results showed that resting-state vmHRV (trait) showed a negative association with behavioural performance for both solution types. This might reflect inter-individual differences in inhibitory control. As the solution search requires one to think of remote associations, inhibitory control might hamper rather than aid this process. Furthermore, we observed, for both solution types, a vmHRV increase from resting-state to solution search (state), lingering on in the post-task recovery period. This could mark the increase of prefrontal resources to promote an open-minded stance, essential for divergent thinking, which arguably is crucial for this task. Our findings suggest that, at a general level, both solution types share common aspects. However, a closer analysis of early and late solutions and puzzle difficulty suggested that metacognitive differentiation between insight and non-insight improved with higher trait vmHRV, and that a unique association between trait vmHRV and puzzle difficulty was present for each solution type.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans Stuyck
- Brain and Cognition, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Center for Research in Cognition and Neurosciences, Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences, Université libre de Bruxelles, Brussel, Belgium
| | - Febe Demeyer
- Brain and Cognition, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Christo Bratanov
- Brain and Cognition, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Axel Cleeremans
- Center for Research in Cognition and Neurosciences, Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences, Université libre de Bruxelles, Brussel, Belgium
| | - Eva Van den Bussche
- Brain and Cognition, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Chesebrough C, Chrysikou EG, Holyoak KJ, Zhang F, Kounios J. Conceptual Change Induced by Analogical Reasoning Sparks Aha Moments. CREATIVITY RESEARCH JOURNAL 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/10400419.2023.2188361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/16/2023]
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Öllinger M, Szathmáry E, Fedor A. Search and insight processes in card sorting games. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1118976. [PMID: 37213381 PMCID: PMC10196050 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1118976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Insight problems are particularly interesting, because problems which require restructuring allow researchers to investigate the underpinnings of the Aha-experience, creativity and out of the box thinking. There is a need for new insight tasks to probe and extend the limits of existing theories and cognitive frameworks. To shed more light on this fascinating issue, we addressed the question: Is it possible to convey a well-known card sorting game into an insight task? We introduced different conditions and tested them via two online experiments (N = 546). Between the conditions we systematically varied the available perceptual features, and the existence of non-obvious rules. We found that our card sorting game elicited insight experience. In the first experiment, our data revealed that solution strategies and insight experience varied by the availability and saliency of perceptual features. The discovery of a non-obvious rule, which is not hinted at by perceptual features, was most difficult. With our new paradigm, we were able to construe ambiguous problems which allowed participants to find more than one solution strategy. Interestingly, we realized interindividual preferences for different strategies. The same problem drove strategies which either relied on feature integration or on more deliberate strategies. The second experiment varied the degree of independence of a sorting rule from the standard rules which were in accordance with prior knowledge. It was shown that the more independent the hidden rule was, the more difficult the task became. In sum, we demonstrated a new insight task which extended the available task domains and shed light on sequential and multi-step rule learning problems. Finally, we provided a first sketch of a cognitive model that should help to integrate the data within the existing literature on cognitive models and speculated about the generalizability of the interplay of prior knowledge modification and variation for problem solving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Öllinger
- Parmenides Center for the Study of Thinking, Pöcking, Germany
- Psychological Department, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- *Correspondence: Michael Öllinger
| | - Eörs Szathmáry
- Parmenides Center for the Conceptual Foundations of Science, Pöcking, Germany
- Institute of Evolution, Centre for Ecological Research, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Anna Fedor
- Institute of Evolution, Centre for Ecological Research, Budapest, Hungary
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Moroshkina NV, Savina AI, Ammalainen AV, Gershkovich VA, Zverev IV, Lvova OV. How Difficult Was It? Metacognitive Judgments About Problems and Their Solutions After the Aha Moment. Front Psychol 2022; 13:911904. [PMID: 35814152 PMCID: PMC9258945 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.911904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The insight phenomenon is thought to comprise two components: cognitive and affective (the Aha! experience). The exact nature of the Aha! experience remains unclear; however, several explanations have been put forward. Based on the processing fluency account, the source of the Aha! experience is a sudden increase in processing fluency, associated with emerging of a solution. We hypothesized that in a situation which the Aha! experience accompanies the solution in, the problem would be judged as less difficult, regardless of the objective difficulty. We also planned to confirm previously discovered associations between the Aha! experience and accuracy, confidence, and pleasure. To test the proposed hypothesis, during the preliminary stage of the study, we developed a set of 100 remote associate problems in Russian (RAT-RUS) and asked 125 participants to solve problems and indicate the Aha! moment (after solution generation or solution presentation), confidence, difficulty, and likability of each problem. As expected, the Aha! experience often accompanied correct solutions and correlated with confidence judgments. We also found a positive correlation between the Aha! experience and problem likability. As for the main hypothesis, we confirmed that the Aha! experience after the presentation of the solution was associated with a decrease in subjective difficulty. When participants could not solve a problem but experienced the Aha! moment after the solution was presented to them, the problem was perceived as easier than one without the Aha! experience. We didn’t find the same effect for the Aha! after solution generation. Thus, our study partially supports the processing fluency account and demonstrates the association between the Aha! experience and metacognitive judgments about the accuracy and difficulty of problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadezhda V. Moroshkina
- The Department of Psychology, St Petersburg University, Saint Petersburg, Russia
- *Correspondence: Nadezhda V. Moroshkina,
| | - Alina I. Savina
- The Department of Psychology, St Petersburg University, Saint Petersburg, Russia
- Alina I. Savina,
| | - Artur V. Ammalainen
- The Department of Psychology, St Petersburg University, Saint Petersburg, Russia
- Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, Moscow, Russia
| | | | - Ilia V. Zverev
- HSE Lyceum, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga V. Lvova
- The Department of Psychology, St Petersburg University, Saint Petersburg, Russia
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Osuna-Mascaró AJ, Auersperg AMI. Current Understanding of the "Insight" Phenomenon Across Disciplines. Front Psychol 2021; 12:791398. [PMID: 34975690 PMCID: PMC8715918 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.791398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite countless anecdotes and the historical significance of insight as a problem solving mechanism, its nature has long remained elusive. The conscious experience of insight is notoriously difficult to trace in non-verbal animals. Although studying insight has presented a significant challenge even to neurobiology and psychology, human neuroimaging studies have cleared the theoretical landscape, as they have begun to reveal the underlying mechanisms. The study of insight in non-human animals has, in contrast, remained limited to innovative adjustments to experimental designs within the classical approach of judging cognitive processes in animals, based on task performance. This leaves no apparent possibility of ending debates from different interpretations emerging from conflicting schools of thought. We believe that comparative cognition has thus much to gain by embracing advances from neuroscience and human cognitive psychology. We will review literature on insight (mainly human) and discuss the consequences of these findings to comparative cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio J. Osuna-Mascaró
- Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Stuyck H, Aben B, Cleeremans A, Van den Bussche E. The Aha! moment: Is insight a different form of problem solving? Conscious Cogn 2021; 90:103055. [PMID: 33721581 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2020.103055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
In everyday life, we mainly solve problems with a conscious solution search (non-insight). However, sometimes a perplexing problem is resolved by a quantum leap in understanding. This phenomenon is known as the Aha! experience (insight). Although insight has a distinct phenomenological and behavioral signature, its driving mechanism remains debated. Weisberg (2015) proposed an integrated theory of insight arguing that insight, like non-insight, mainly depends on conscious, cognitive operations with restructuring as a distinguishing feature of insight. However, only if those operations lead to an impasse, insight is achieved through unconscious processes. We assessed some of the premises of this theory by asking participants (N = 42) to solve 70 word puzzles (CRAT) that can either be solved with insight or non-insight. For each puzzle, participants indicated word puzzle difficulty, solution confidence, solution suddenness, and the experiences of impasse and restructuring. As expected, participants reported higher suddenness of and confidence in insight solutions than non-insightful ones. Surprisingly, we could not corroborate the otherwise consistently reported higher solution accuracy and faster solution speed for insight. Crucially, as suggested by the integrated theory of insight, impasse was not a prerequisite for insight to occur. Although restructuring, indeed, preceded insight solutions more often, it seemed a more general problem-solving skill also applied for non-insight solutions. Moreover, early on, participants reported an increased experience of problem difficulty for puzzles later solved with insight. This ability to report on the solution search of insight demonstrates that, as proposed by the theory, insight involves conscious, cognitive operations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans Stuyck
- KU Leuven, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Brain and Cognition, Tiensestraat 102, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Université Libre de Bruxelles, Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences, Center for Research in Cognition and Neurosciences, Franklin Rooseveltlaan 50, 1050 Brussel, Belgium; Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Cognitive Psychology Research Group, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Elsene, Belgium.
| | - Bart Aben
- KU Leuven, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Brain and Cognition, Tiensestraat 102, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Ghent University, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Department of Experimental Psychology, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Axel Cleeremans
- Université Libre de Bruxelles, Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences, Center for Research in Cognition and Neurosciences, Franklin Rooseveltlaan 50, 1050 Brussel, Belgium
| | - Eva Van den Bussche
- KU Leuven, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Brain and Cognition, Tiensestraat 102, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
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Korovkin S, Savinova A, Padalka J, Zhelezova A. Beautiful mind: grouping of actions into mental schemes leads to a full insight Aha! experience. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2020.1847124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sergei Korovkin
- Department of Psychology, Yaroslavl State University, Yaroslavl, Russia
| | - Anna Savinova
- Department of Psychology, Yaroslavl State University, Yaroslavl, Russia
| | - Julia Padalka
- Department of Psychology, Yaroslavl State University, Yaroslavl, Russia
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Ammalainen A, Moroshkina N. The effect of true and false unreportable hints on anagram problem solving, restructuring, and the Aha!-experience. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2020.1844722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Artur Ammalainen
- Institute for Cognitive Studies, Saint Petersburg State University, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation
| | - Nadezhda Moroshkina
- Institute for Cognitive Studies, Saint Petersburg State University, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation
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Danek AH, Wiley J. What causes the insight memory advantage? Cognition 2020; 205:104411. [PMID: 32762872 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Revised: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Prior research indicates that solutions accompanied by an Aha! experience are remembered better than those missing this feeling of epiphany. The question for the present studies was whether this insight memory advantage for problem solutions is modulated by the affective component of insight (the strong feelings that typically accompany the Aha! experience), or by the cognitive component (the restructuring or representational change that occurs during insightful problem solving). In both studies, participants viewed a set of magic trick videos to generate solutions for how each trick was done, and memory for the generated solutions was tested after a week delay. They also indicated the extent to which they experienced an Aha! moment at solution along with other perceptions of their experience. In the second study, they additionally rated the relevance of five action verbs for each trick (including one that implied the correct solution) multiple times during solution as a measure of restructuring the problem representation. The explanation for the insight memory advantage that was best supported by the results is that it is the joint consequence of finding correct solutions, the subjective feeling that one has found a correct solution (certainty), and experiencing an emotional pleasurable reaction during the problem solving process that all contribute to better memory for the solution. However, it did not seem to rely on having reached the solution via a sudden restructuring process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amory H Danek
- Cognitive Division, Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1007 W. Harrison Street MC 285, Chicago, IL 60607, USA.
| | - Jennifer Wiley
- Cognitive Division, Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1007 W. Harrison Street MC 285, Chicago, IL 60607, USA
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Ishikawa T, Toshima M, Mogi K. How and When? Metacognition and Solution Timing Characterize an "Aha" Experience of Object Recognition in Hidden Figures. Front Psychol 2019; 10:1023. [PMID: 31178774 PMCID: PMC6538685 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The metacognitive feelings of an "aha!" experience are key to comprehending human subjective experience. However, behavioral characteristics of this introspective cognition are not well known. An aha experience sometimes occurs when one gains a solution abruptly in problem solving, a subjective experience that subserves the conscious perception of an insight. We experimentally induced an aha experience in a hidden object recognition task, and analyzed whether this aha experience was associated with metacognitive judgments and behavioral features. We used an adaptation of Mooney images, i.e., morphing between a grayscale image and its binarised image in 100 steps, to investigate the phenomenology associated with insight: aha experience, confidence, suddenness, and pleasure. Here we show that insight solutions are more accurate than non-insight solutions. As metacognitive judgments, participants' confidence in the correctness of their solution is higher in insight than non-insight problem solving. Intensities of the aha feeling are positively correlated with subjective rating scores of both suddenness and pleasure, features that show marked signs of unexpected positive emotions. The strength of the aha experience is also positively correlated with response times from the onset of presentation until finding the solution, or with task difficulty only if the solution confidence is high enough. Our findings provide metacognitive and temporal conditions for an aha experience, characterizing features distinct from those supporting non-aha experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetsuo Ishikawa
- Medical Sciences Innovation Hub Program, RIKEN, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Mayumi Toshima
- Digital Content and Media Sciences Research Division, National Institute of Informatics, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ken Mogi
- Sony Computer Science Laboratories, Inc., Tokyo, Japan
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