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Boogaard PJ. Human biomonitoring of low-level benzene exposures. Crit Rev Toxicol 2023; 52:799-810. [PMID: 36880454 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2023.2175642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2023]
Abstract
Historically, benzene has been widely used in a large variety of applications. Occupational exposure limits (OELs) were set for benzene as it was found to be acutely toxic, causing central nervous system depression at high exposures. OELs were lowered when it was discovered that chronic exposure to benzene could cause haematotoxicity. After confirmation that benzene is a human carcinogen causing acute myeloid leukaemia and possibly other blood malignancies, OEL were further lowered. The industrial application of benzene as solvent is almost completely discontinued but it is still used as feedstock for the production of other materials, such as styrene. Occupational exposure to benzene may also occur since it is present in crude oil, natural gas condensate and a variety of petroleum products and because benzene can be formed in combustion of organic material. In the past few years, lower OELs for benzene in the range of 0.05-0.25 ppm have been proposed or were already established to protect workers from benzene-induced cancer. The skin is an important potential route of exposure and relatively more important at lower OELs. Consequently, human biomonitoring - which integrates all exposure routes - is routinely applied to control overall exposure to benzene. Several potential biomarkers have been proposed and investigated. For compliance check of the current low OELs, urinary S-phenylmercapturic acid (S-PMA), urinary benzene and blood benzene are feasible biomarkers. S-PMA appears to be the most promising biomarker but proper validation of biomarker levels corresponding to airborne benzene concentrations below 0.25 ppm are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Boogaard
- AFSG - Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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2
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Nasri A, Mezni A, Lafon PA, Wahbi A, Cubedo N, Clair P, Harrath AH, Beyrem H, Rossel M, Perrier V. Ethinylestradiol (EE2) residues from birth control pills impair nervous system development and swimming behavior of zebrafish larvae. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 770:145272. [PMID: 33497902 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The ubiquitous use of ethinylestradiol (EE2), an active constituent of birth control preparations, results in continuous release of this synthetic estrogen to surface waters. Many studies document the untoward effects of EE2 on the endocrine system of aquatic organisms. Effects of environmental EE2 on the nervous system are still poorly documented. We studied effects of pico- to nanomolar concentrations of EE2 on early nervous system development of zebrafish larvae. EE2 disrupted axonal nerve regeneration and hair cell regeneration up to 50%. Gene expression in larval brain tissues showed significantly upregulated expression of target genes, such as estrogen and progesterone receptors, and aromatase B. In contrast, downregulation of the tyrosine hydroxylase, involved in the synthesis of neurotransmitters, occurred concomitant with diminution of proliferating cells. Overall, the size of exposed fish larvae decreased by 25% and their swimming behavior was modified compared to non-treated larvae. EE2 interferes with nervous system development, both centrally and peripherally, with negative effects on regeneration and swimming behavior. Survival of fish and other aquatic species may be at risk in chronically EE2-contaminated environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Nasri
- Laboratory of Environment Biomonitoring, Unit of coastal Ecology and Ecotoxicology, Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, University of Carthage, 7021, Zarzouna, Tunisia; U1198 MMDN (Molecular Mechanisms of Neurodegenerative Diseases), Inserm (National Institute for Health and Medical Research), MGX (Montpellier GenomiX), BioCampus, University of Montpellier, 34095, Montpellier, France.
| | - Ali Mezni
- Laboratory of Environment Biomonitoring, Unit of coastal Ecology and Ecotoxicology, Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, University of Carthage, 7021, Zarzouna, Tunisia
| | - Pierre-André Lafon
- U1198 MMDN (Molecular Mechanisms of Neurodegenerative Diseases), Inserm (National Institute for Health and Medical Research), MGX (Montpellier GenomiX), BioCampus, University of Montpellier, 34095, Montpellier, France
| | - Aymen Wahbi
- Laboratory of Hetero-Organic Compounds and Nanostructured Materials (LR18ES11), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, University of Carthage, 7021, Zarzouna, Tunisia
| | - Nicolas Cubedo
- U1198 MMDN (Molecular Mechanisms of Neurodegenerative Diseases), Inserm (National Institute for Health and Medical Research), MGX (Montpellier GenomiX), BioCampus, University of Montpellier, 34095, Montpellier, France
| | - Philippe Clair
- U1198 MMDN (Molecular Mechanisms of Neurodegenerative Diseases), Inserm (National Institute for Health and Medical Research), MGX (Montpellier GenomiX), BioCampus, University of Montpellier, 34095, Montpellier, France
| | - Abdel Halim Harrath
- King Saud University, Zoology Department, College of Science, Box 2455, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hamouda Beyrem
- Laboratory of Environment Biomonitoring, Unit of coastal Ecology and Ecotoxicology, Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, University of Carthage, 7021, Zarzouna, Tunisia
| | - Mireille Rossel
- U1198 MMDN (Molecular Mechanisms of Neurodegenerative Diseases), Inserm (National Institute for Health and Medical Research), MGX (Montpellier GenomiX), BioCampus, University of Montpellier, 34095, Montpellier, France
| | - Véronique Perrier
- U1198 MMDN (Molecular Mechanisms of Neurodegenerative Diseases), Inserm (National Institute for Health and Medical Research), MGX (Montpellier GenomiX), BioCampus, University of Montpellier, 34095, Montpellier, France
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Arnold SM, Angerer J, Boogaard PJ, Hughes MF, O'Lone RB, Robison SH, Schnatter AR. The use of biomonitoring data in exposure and human health risk assessment: benzene case study. Crit Rev Toxicol 2013; 43:119-53. [PMID: 23346981 PMCID: PMC3585443 DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2012.756455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2012] [Revised: 11/30/2012] [Accepted: 12/04/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Abstract A framework of "Common Criteria" (i.e. a series of questions) has been developed to inform the use and evaluation of biomonitoring data in the context of human exposure and risk assessment. The data-rich chemical benzene was selected for use in a case study to assess whether refinement of the Common Criteria framework was necessary, and to gain additional perspective on approaches for integrating biomonitoring data into a risk-based context. The available data for benzene satisfied most of the Common Criteria and allowed for a risk-based evaluation of the benzene biomonitoring data. In general, biomarker (blood benzene, urinary benzene and urinary S-phenylmercapturic acid) central tendency (i.e. mean, median and geometric mean) concentrations for non-smokers are at or below the predicted blood or urine concentrations that would correspond to exposure at the US Environmental Protection Agency reference concentration (30 µg/m(3)), but greater than blood or urine concentrations relating to the air concentration at the 1 × 10(-5) excess cancer risk (2.9 µg/m(3)). Smokers clearly have higher levels of benzene exposure, and biomarker levels of benzene for non-smokers are generally consistent with ambient air monitoring results. While some biomarkers of benzene are specific indicators of exposure, the interpretation of benzene biomonitoring levels in a health-risk context are complicated by issues associated with short half-lives and gaps in knowledge regarding the relationship between the biomarkers and subsequent toxic effects.
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Seow WJ, Pesatori AC, Dimont E, Farmer PB, Albetti B, Ettinger AS, Bollati V, Bolognesi C, Roggieri P, Panev TI, Georgieva T, Merlo DF, Bertazzi PA, Baccarelli AA. Urinary benzene biomarkers and DNA methylation in Bulgarian petrochemical workers: study findings and comparison of linear and beta regression models. PLoS One 2012; 7:e50471. [PMID: 23227177 PMCID: PMC3515615 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0050471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2012] [Accepted: 10/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic occupational exposure to benzene is associated with an increased risk of hematological malignancies such as acute myeloid leukemia (AML), but the underlying mechanisms are still unclear. The main objective of this study was to investigate the association between benzene exposure and DNA methylation, both in repeated elements and candidate genes, in a population of 158 Bulgarian petrochemical workers and 50 unexposed office workers. Exposure assessment included personal monitoring of airborne benzene at work and urinary biomarkers of benzene metabolism (S-phenylmercapturic acid [SPMA] and trans,trans-muconic acid [t,t-MA]) at the end of the work-shift. The median levels of airborne benzene, SPMA and t,t-MA in workers were 0.46 ppm, 15.5 µg/L and 711 µg/L respectively, and exposure levels were significantly lower in the controls. Repeated-element DNA methylation was measured in Alu and LINE-1, and gene-specific methylation in MAGE and p15. DNA methylation levels were not significantly different between exposed workers and controls (P>0.05). Both ordinary least squares (OLS) and beta-regression models were used to estimate benzene-methylation associations. Beta-regression showed better model specification, as reflected in improved coefficient of determination (pseudo R(2)) and Akaike's information criterion (AIC). In beta-regression, we found statistically significant reductions in LINE-1 (-0.15%, P<0.01) and p15 (-0.096%, P<0.01) mean methylation levels with each interquartile range (IQR) increase in SPMA. This study showed statistically significant but weak associations of LINE-1 and p15 hypomethylation with SPMA in Bulgarian petrochemical workers. We showed that beta-regression is more appropriate than OLS regression for fitting methylation data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Jie Seow
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America.
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Haro-García LC, Juárez-Pérez CA, Aguilar-Madrid G, Vélez-Zamora NM, Muñoz-Navarro S, Chacón-Salinas R, González-Bonilla CR, Iturbe-Haro CR, Estrada-García I, Borja-Aburto VH. Production of IL-10, TNF and IL-12 by Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells in Mexican Workers Exposed to a Mixture of Benzene–Toluene–Xylene. Arch Med Res 2012; 43:51-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2012.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2011] [Accepted: 01/10/2012] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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Benzene Exposure During Tunnelling—Using Biological Monitoring to Assess Control Measures and Working Practice. ANNALS OF OCCUPATIONAL HYGIENE 2011; 55:248-52. [DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/mer001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Fustinoni S, Campo L, Mercadante R, Consonni D, Mielzynska D, Bertazzi PA. A quantitative approach to evaluate urinary benzene and S-phenylmercapturic acid as biomarkers of low benzene exposure. Biomarkers 2011; 16:334-45. [DOI: 10.3109/1354750x.2011.561499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Fustinoni
- University of Milan, Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Milano, Italy
| | - Laura Campo
- University of Milan, Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Milano, Italy
| | - Rosa Mercadante
- University of Milan, Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Milano, Italy
| | - Dario Consonni
- University of Milan, Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Milano, Italy
| | | | - Pier Alberto Bertazzi
- University of Milan, Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Milano, Italy
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Tranfo G, Bartolucci GB, Pigini D, Paci E, Scapellato ML, Doria D, Manno M, Carrieri M. Comparison of hydrolysis and HPLC/MS/MS procedure with ELISA assay for the determination of S-phenylmercapturic acid as a biomarker of benzene exposure in human urine. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2010; 878:2529-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2009.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2009] [Revised: 10/21/2009] [Accepted: 11/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Ball L, Jones A, Boogaard P, Will W, Aston P. Development of a competitive immunoassay for the determination of N-(2-hydroxyethyl)valine adducts in human haemoglobin and its application in biological monitoring. Biomarkers 2008; 9:407-17. [PMID: 15849062 DOI: 10.1080/13547500400024974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Ethylene oxide (EO) is an important industrial compound and a directly acting mutagen. Human exposure to it can be monitored by the determination of haemoglobin (Hb) adducts. An immunoassay that quantifies the N-terminal adduct N-(2-hydroxyethyl)valine in whole blood was developed, and its potential usefulness as a tool for biologically monitoring occupational exposure demonstrated. Analytical reliability was confirmed in a comparative study with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (range 0.040-589 nmol g(-1) Hb, correlation coefficient 0.98, n=10). The assay was configured as a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to facilitate the rapid throughput of samples. The assay uses a whole blood matrix and has a working range of 10-10000 pmol N-(2-hydroxyethyl)valine g(-1) hB. The assay does not appear to be affected by structurally similar metabolites and has been used to determine adducts in human blood samples. The first results from potentially exposed workers indicate the assay might be a powerful tool for the routine occupational biomonitoring of EO exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lathan Ball
- AB Biomonitoring Ltd., The Medicentre, Heath Park, Cardiff CF14 4UJ, Wales, UK.
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Johnson ES, Langård S, Lin YS. A critique of benzene exposure in the general population. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2007; 374:183-98. [PMID: 17261327 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.11.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2006] [Revised: 11/21/2006] [Accepted: 11/28/2006] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Benzene risk assessment indicates that exposure to a time-weighted average (TWA) of 1-5 parts per million (ppm) benzene in ambient air for 40 years is associated with an increased risk of acute myeloid leukemia. Decreased white blood cell count, platelet count and other hematological indices have also been observed in persons exposed to as low as 1 ppm airborne benzene. Evidence from studies worldwide consistently shows elevated levels of benzene biomarkers that are equivalent to 0.1-2 ppm benzene in ambient air, or even higher in the general population without occupational exposure to benzene (including children). The public health significance of these observations depends on to what extent these levels reflect actual benzene exposure, and whether such exposures are life-long or at least occur frequently enough to pose a possible health threat. We reviewed the evidence and discussed possible explanations for these observations. It was concluded that while there is reason to suspect that benzene contributes significantly to elevated levels of biomarkers in the general population, there is growing concern that this cannot be definitively ascertained without concomitant consideration of the role of other factors such as metabolic polymorphisms and sources of biomarkers other than benzene, which have been insufficiently studied to date. Such studies are urgently needed for valid assessment of this potential public health problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric S Johnson
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd, Fort Worth, TX 76107, United States.
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Colman R, Coleman A. Unexpected cause of raised benzene absorption in coke oven by-product workers. Occup Med (Lond) 2006; 56:269-71. [PMID: 16497679 DOI: 10.1093/occmed/kqj034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Urinary biological monitoring for benzene (by measuring benzene metabolites) in coke oven by-product workers produced the unexpected result that 2 out of 10 employees had significantly raised urinary S-phenylmercapturic acid (S-PMA). However, simultaneous personal air sampling showed no excessive airborne exposure. METHODS Possible causes for this finding were investigated having excluded inhalation as the route of uptake. It was suspected that skin absorption via contaminated overalls was the possible mechanism and a standard frequency for overall change was introduced. RESULTS Changing overalls after every four shifts reduced uptake levels to less than the equivalent of 1 ppm inhaled dose for all employees. CONCLUSION Skin absorption of benzene in coke oven by-product workers from contaminated overalls can be significant and therefore overalls should be changed on a regular and frequent basis.
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Marrubini G, Dugheri S, Pacenti M, Coccini T, Arcangeli G, Cupelli V, Manzo L. Determination of S-phenylmercapturic acid by GC-MS and ELISA: a comparison of the two methods. Biomarkers 2005; 10:238-51. [PMID: 16240503 DOI: 10.1080/13547500500218757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
S-phenylmercapturic acid (PMA) is a specific urinary biomarker of benzene at exposure levels lower than 1 ppm. However, measuring PMA in urine is an expensive task by either GC or HPLC due to the necessity of extensive sample pretreatment. In the present study, a commercial chemiluminescence enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test for PMA and GC-MS were used for screening urine samples of 60 workers employed in petrochemical settings. The ELISA results were evaluated by comparison with the GC-MS. Overall, the ELISA test proved sensitive (limit of detection=0.1 microg l(-1)), rapid, robust and reliable, affording results in good agreement with the GC-MS (54% of measurements) and no false-negatives. On the other hand, 46% of the ELISA assays were assigned as false-positives (arbitrarily established when ELISA >5 microg l(-1), GC-MS <5 microg l(-1) and a correlation coefficient of 0.687 was calculated between the two methods. It appears that urinary PMA routine biomonitoring on large numbers of samples is carried out in a cost-effective and rapid approach by preliminary screening with the ELISA assay followed by GC-MS confirmation of concentrations exceeding the biological exposure index for PMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Marrubini
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy.
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Fustinoni S, Consonni D, Campo L, Buratti M, Colombi A, Pesatori AC, Bonzini M, Bertazzi PA, Foà V, Garte S, Farmer PB, Levy LS, Pala M, Valerio F, Fontana V, Desideri A, Merlo DF. Monitoring Low Benzene Exposure: Comparative Evaluation of Urinary Biomarkers, Influence of Cigarette Smoking, and Genetic Polymorphisms. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005; 14:2237-44. [PMID: 16172237 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-04-0798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Benzene is a human carcinogen and an ubiquitous environmental pollutant. Identification of specific and sensitive biological markers is critical for the definition of exposure to low benzene level and the evaluation of the health risk posed by this exposure. This investigation compared urinary trans,trans-muconic acid (t,t-MA), S-phenylmercapturic acid, and benzene (U-benzene) as biomarkers to assess benzene exposure and evaluated the influence of smoking and the genetic polymorphisms CYP2E1 (RsaI and DraI) and NADPH quinone oxidoreductase-1 on these indices. Gas station attendants, urban policemen, bus drivers, and two groups of controls were studied (415 subjects). Median benzene exposure was 61, 22, 21, 9 and 6 microg/m(3), respectively, with higher levels in workers than in controls. U-benzene, but not t,t-MA and S-phenylmercapturic acid, showed an exposure-related increase. All the biomarkers were strongly influenced by cigarette smoking, with values up to 8-fold higher in smokers compared with nonsmokers. Significant correlations of the biomarkers with each other and with urinary cotinine were found. A possible influence of genetic polymorphism of CYP2E1 (RsaI and/or DraI) on t,t-MA and U-benzene in subjects with a variant allele was found. Multiple linear regression analysis correlated the urinary markers with exposure, smoking status, and CYP2E1 (RsaI; R(2) up to 0.55 for U-benzene). In conclusion, in the range of investigated benzene levels (<478 micro/m(3) or <0.15 ppm), smoking may be regarded as the major source of benzene intake; among the study indices, U-benzene is the marker of choice for biomonitoring low-level occupational and environmental benzene exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Fustinoni
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Milan, Italy.
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Marrubini G, Terulla E, Brusotti G, Massolini G. Effect of hippuric acid on the gaschromatographic retention of S-phenylmercapturic acid. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2005; 822:209-20. [PMID: 16005267 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2005.05.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2004] [Revised: 05/05/2005] [Accepted: 05/15/2005] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
S-phenylmercapturic acid (PMA) is one specific urinary biomarker of low-level benzene exposure. It is used for biological monitoring of benzene-exposed workers in the petrochemical industry and normally ranges from non-measurable to 10 microg/l levels in non-exposed non-smoking subjects. Benzene-exposure caused by workplace or lifestyle sources is frequently accompanied by toluene exposure, which can cause the occurrence of high levels (from 10 mg/l to more than 2000 mg/l) of hippuric acid (HA) in urine. Both solvents are toxic, and benzene is classified as a human carcinogen. The biological monitoring of benzene and toluene is therefore required for preventive care of exposed workers health. In this study a GC-MS method was adopted for measuring urinary PMA, which involved liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) with ethyl acetate from acidified urine and esterification with 0.5 N hydrochloric acid in methanol. The method evidenced a GC effect in a conventional HP-5 (30 m x 0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 microm film-thickness) methyl-phenylsilicone capillary column produced by HA on PMA. The results demonstrate that HA at concentrations as low as 250 mg/l can delay the elution of PMA and labelled internal standard from the column. The recognition and discussion of this particular GC phase soaking effect may be of help for those who are occupied in the determination of PMA and of urinary acidic metabolites by GC.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Marrubini
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Pavia, Via Taramelli 12, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
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15
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Haufroid V, Lison D. Mercapturic acids revisited as biomarkers of exposure to reactive chemicals in occupational toxicology: a minireview. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2005; 78:343-54. [PMID: 15883816 DOI: 10.1007/s00420-005-0620-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2004] [Accepted: 01/28/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
A minireview is presented concerning the use of mercapturic acids as biological exposure index for electrophilic chemicals. Besides pure analytical aspects, this minireview considers possible issues in relation to (a) the added value of mercapturic acids as compared to other well validated biomarkers of exposure and (b) the high inter-individual variability in mercapturic acids excretion. Recent field and/or experimental studies confirm the usefulness of mercapturic acids as biological exposure index for electrophilic chemicals and suggest the interest of a toxicogenetic approach for a better interpretation of the results of biological monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Haufroid
- Université catholique de Louvain, Unité de Toxicologie Industrielle et Environnementale, Clos Chapelle-aux-Champs 30 boite 54, 1200 Bruxelles, Belgium.
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16
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Farmer PB, Kaur B, Roach J, Levy L, Consonni D, Bertazzi PA, Pesatori A, Fustinoni S, Buratti M, Bonzini M, Colombi A, Popov T, Cavallo D, Desideri A, Valerio F, Pala M, Bolognesi C, Merlo F. The use of S-phenylmercapturic acid as a biomarker in molecular epidemiology studies of benzene. Chem Biol Interact 2005; 153-154:97-102. [PMID: 15935804 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2005.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
S-Phenylmercapturic acid (S-PMA), is a urinary metabolite of benzene, thought to be derived from the condensation product of benzene oxide with glutathione. S-PMA may be determined by GC, HPLC (UV or fluorescence detection), GC-MS, LC-MS/MS or immunoassays. The limit of sensitivities of most of these techniques is 1 microg/l urine or below. It has been suggested that S-PMA may have value as a biomarker for low level human exposure to benzene, in view of the facts that urinary excretion of S-PMA has been found to be related to airborne benzene in occupationally exposed workers, and that only low background levels of S-PMA have been found in control subjects. We have evaluated the use of S-PMA as a biomarker, using a commercially available analytical service, in a multicentre European study of populations exposed to varying levels of benzene, in Italy (Milan, Genoa) and in Bulgaria (Sofia). These were filling station attendants, urban policemen, bus drivers, petrochemical workers and referents (a total of 623 subjects). S-PMA was measured at the end of the work shift by an immunoassay procedure. Urinary benzene (in Milan only) and the benzene metabolite trans,trans-muconic acid (t,t-MA) were measured before and after the work shift. Air-borne benzene was measured as a monitor of exposure. Urinary benzene was the most discriminatory biomarker and showed a relationship with airborne benzene at all levels of exposure studied (including groups exposed to <0.1 ppm benzene), whereas t,t-MA and S-PMA, as determined by immunoassay, were suitable only in the highest exposed workers (petrochemical industry, geometric mean 1765 microg/m3 (0.55 ppm) benzene). All three biomarkers were positively correlated with smoking as measured by urinary cotinine).
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter B Farmer
- Cancer Biomarkers and Prevention Group, Biocentre, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK.
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Abstract
OBJECTIVES A variety of biomarkers have been used to study worker populations, and these studies have achieved different levels of success in the improvement of occupational health. METHODS Successful application of biomarker research is dependent upon several important factors: ability to identify hazardous substances from the exposure to a variety of substances, relevance to the development of disease, and usefulness for health risk assessment. RESULTS Besides the traditional biomarkers for exposure, biological effects, and health risk, new biomarkers for susceptibility and genome-wide responses are being used to improve our understanding of occupational health at a higher and, perhaps, more precise level. CONCLUSIONS In addition, there is a continued need to develop and apply biomarkers that can be used to provide real-time detection of excessive exposure to hazardous substances in the workplace, especially from unexpected fugitive emissions. These topics are discussed in the review.
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Affiliation(s)
- William W Au
- Department of Preventive Medicine and Community Health, The University of Texas, Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-1110, USA.
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18
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Maestri L, Negri S, Ferrari M, Ghittori S, Imbriani M. Determination of urinary S-phenylmercapturic acid, a specific metabolite of benzene, by liquid chromatography/single quadrupole mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2005; 19:1139-1144. [PMID: 15799071 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.1904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A high-performance liquid chromatography/single quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC/MS) method is described for the determination of urinary S-phenylmercapturic acid (S-PMA), a specific metabolite of benzene. Urine samples were spiked with [13C6]S-PMA (used as the internal standard) and acidified; then they were purified by solid-phase extraction (SPE) on C18 cartridges. Analyses were conducted on a reversed-phase column by gradient runs with 1% aqueous acetic acid/methanol mixtures at different proportions as the mobile phase. The detector was used in electrospray negative ion mode (ESI-), the ions m/z 238 for S-PMA and 244 for [13C6]S-PMA being recorded simultaneously. The detection limit (for a signal-to-noise ratio = 3) was 0.2 microg/L, thus allowing for the measurement of background excretion of S-PMA in the general population. The use of the internal standard allowed us to obtain good precision (CV% values < 3%) and a linear calibration curve within the range of interest for monitoring occupational exposure to benzene (up to 500 microg/L). The method was applied to assay the metabolite concentration in a group of 299 workers (68 smokers and 231 non-smokers) occupationally exposed to relatively low levels of benzene (environmental concentration = 0.4-220 microg/m3, mean 11.4 microg/m3 and 236 non-exposed subjects (134 smokers and 102 non-smokers). The results clearly showed that smoking must be taken into account for the correct interpretation of the results of S-PMA measurements for the assessment of work-related benzene exposure. When only non-smokers were selected, the mean excretion of S-PMA was significantly higher in workers exposed to benzene (1.2 +/- 0.9 microg/g creatinine) than in the control group (0.7 +/- 0.6 microg/g creatinine) (p < 0.001), thus confirming the role of S-PMA as a biomarker of benzene on a group basis, even for relatively low exposure degrees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciano Maestri
- Laboratorio Studio e Monitoraggio dell'Esposizione a Inquinanti Aeriformi (LabS-MEIA), Fondazione Salvatore Maugeri, IRCCS, Via Ferrata 8, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
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19
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Waidyanatha S, Rothman N, Li G, Smith MT, Yin S, Rappaport SM. Rapid determination of six urinary benzene metabolites in occupationally exposed and unexposed subjects. Anal Biochem 2004; 327:184-99. [PMID: 15051535 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2004.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2003] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
A gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method for measurement of the main urinary metabolites of benzene, namely, phenol, catechol, hydroquinone, 1,2,4-trihydroxybenzene (trihydroxybenzene), t,t-muconic acid (muconic acid), and S-phenylmercapturic acid (phenylmercapturic acid), is reported. The method is considerably simpler than existing assays. It was applied to urine from benzene-exposed subjects and controls from Shanghai, China. When subjects were divided into controls (n = 44), those exposed to </= 31 ppm benzene (n = 21), and those exposed to > 31 ppm benzene (n = 19), Spearman correlations with exposure category were >/= 0.728 (p < 0.0001) for all metabolites except trihydroxybenzene. When exposed subjects were compared on an individual basis, all metabolites, including trihydroxybenzene, were significantly correlated with benzene exposure (Pearson r >/= 0.472, p </= 0.002) and with each other (Pearson r >/= 0.708, p < 0.0001). Ratios of individual metabolite levels to total metabolite levels provided evidence of competitive inhibition of CYP 2E1 enzymes leading to increased production of phenol, catechol, and phenylmercapturic acid at the expense of hydroquinone, trihydroxybenzene, and muconic acid. Since all metabolites were detected in all control subjects, the method can be applied to persons exposed to environmental levels of benzene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suramya Waidyanatha
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7431, USA
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20
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Pople JE, Ball RL, Padgett MJ, Aston JP. Construction of a database of benzene biological monitoring. Toxicol Lett 2002; 134:301-4. [PMID: 12191892 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4274(02)00194-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Biological monitoring of occupational exposure to benzene has been conducted in the petroleum, steel and chemical industries. The urinary benzene-specific biomarker, S-phenylmercapturic acid (PMA), was quantified in post-shift samples using a sensitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and expressed as a function of urinary creatinine concentration. The assay, based on a PMA-specific antiserum, is sufficiently sensitive to measure PMA levels in non-occupationally exposed control subjects. The assay delivers batch results in a timely manner which may be as short as 3 h. Samples were analysed from groups of workers engaged in coke oven combustion processes, petroleum refining and decontamination of a benzene land spill. The construction of a database of results provides an index of benzene uptake as a consequence of the respective work processes and tasks and readily enables benchmarking exercises aimed at comparing degrees of exposure across segments of industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Pople
- AB Biomonitoring Limited, Cardiff Medicentre, Heath Park, Cardiff, UK
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