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Huuskonen P, Porras SP, Scholten B, Portengen L, Uuksulainen S, Ylinen K, Santonen T. Occupational Exposure and Health Impact Assessment of Diisocyanates in Finland. TOXICS 2023; 11:229. [PMID: 36976995 PMCID: PMC10052111 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11030229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Diisocyanates are a group of chemicals widely used in different industrial applications. The critical health effects related to diisocyanate exposure are isocyanate sensitisation, occupational asthma and bronchial hyperresponsiveness (BHR). Industrial air measurements and human biomonitoring (HBM) samples were gathered in specific occupational sectors to examine MDI, TDI, HDI and IPDI and the respective metabolites from Finnish screening studies. HBM data can give a more accurate picture of diisocyanate exposure, especially if workers have been exposed dermally or used respiratory protection. The HBM data were used for conducting a health impact assessment (HIA) in specific Finnish occupational sectors. For this purpose, exposure reconstruction was performed on the basis of HBM measurements of TDI and MDI exposures using a PBPK model, and a correlation equation was made for HDI exposure. Subsequently, the exposure estimates were compared to a previously published dose-response curve for excess BHR risk. The results showed that the mean and median diisocyanate exposure levels and HBM concentrations were low for all diisocyanates. In HIA, the excess risk of BHR from MDI exposure over a working life period was highest in the construction and motor and vehicle industries and repair sectors, resulting in estimated excess risks of BHR of 2.0% and 2.6%, and 113 and 244 extra BHR cases in Finland, respectively. Occupational exposure to diisocyanates must be monitored because a clear threshold for DI sensitisation cannot be established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pasi Huuskonen
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, FI-00032 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Simo P. Porras
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, FI-00032 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Bernice Scholten
- The Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), 3508 TA Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Lützen Portengen
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CK Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Sanni Uuksulainen
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, FI-00032 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Katriina Ylinen
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, FI-00032 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Tiina Santonen
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, FI-00032 Helsinki, Finland
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Klusáčková P, Dušková Š, Mráz J, Navrátil T, Vlčková Š, Pelclová D. Health effects of exposure to isocyanates in a car factory. Cent Eur J Public Health 2022; 30:32-36. [PMID: 35421296 DOI: 10.21101/cejph.a6805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Isocyanates are known to induce occupational diseases. The aim of this work was to assess the health effects of exposure to isocyanates and to test the sensitivity of selected parameters for early detection of isocyanate-related allergic diseases. METHODS In total, 35 employees from one factory were tested: 26 workers exposed to isocyanates (exposed group) and nine office workers (control group). All subjects filled in a questionnaire regarding possible health problems. Fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) and spirometry were measured for each subject at the same time during two consecutive working days. A urine sample was taken for a biological exposure test (BET). RESULTS No significant difference was found between the exposed and control groups for spirometry parameters and FeNO. However, in the exposed group, FeNO was highly elevated (> 50 ppb) in five subjects (all reporting health problems at the workplace, all with normal spirometry and non-smokers). The BET revealed a significant difference (p < 0.001) between the exposed and control groups for 4,4´-methylenediphenyl diamine (MDA) in the urine. CONCLUSIONS Our examination showed the usefulness of the BET in monitoring of workplace exposure to isocyanates and the importance of FeNO in monitoring of allergic inflammation of airways in non-smoking employees with normal spirometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavlína Klusáčková
- Department of Occupational Medicine, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Šárka Dušková
- Centre of Occupational Health, National Institute of Public Health, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jaroslav Mráz
- Centre of Occupational Health, National Institute of Public Health, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Navrátil
- J. Heyrovsky Institute of Physical Chemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Štěpánka Vlčková
- Department of Occupational Medicine, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Daniela Pelclová
- Department of Occupational Medicine, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
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Rother D, Schlüter U. Occupational Exposure to Diisocyanates in the European Union. Ann Work Expo Health 2021; 65:893-907. [PMID: 33889955 PMCID: PMC8501949 DOI: 10.1093/annweh/wxab021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Objectives Diisocyanates are a chemical group that are widely used at workplaces in many sectors. They are also potent skin- and respiratory sensitizers. Exposure to diisocyanates is a main cause of occupational asthma in the European Union. To reduce occupational exposure to diisocyanates and consequently the cases of diisocyanate-induced asthma, a restriction on diisocyanates was recently adopted under the REACH Regulation in the European Union. Methods A comprehensive evaluation of the data on occupational exposure to the most important diisocyanates at workplaces was made and is reported here. The diisocyanates considered are methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI), toluene diisocyanate (TDI), and hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI), accounting for more than 95% of the market volume in the EU. The exposure assessment is based on data from Chemical Safety Reports (CSRs) of REACH Registration Dossiers, workplace air monitoring data from Germany, from the UK Health and Safety Executive (HSE), and literature data relevant for the EU, and the USA. Results Occupational exposure to diisocyanates is particularly relevant in: (i) C.A.S.E. applications (Coatings, Adhesives, Sealants, Elastomers), (ii) production of polyurethanes (PUs) (e.g. slab-stock foam), (iii) handling of partly uncured PU products (e.g. cutting, demoulding, spray application of foam), and (iv) when diisocyanates/PUs are heated (e.g. hot lamination, foundry applications/casting forms). Ranking of the reported data on inhalation to diisocyanate exposure at workplaces (maximum values) leads to following order: (i) HDI and its oligomers in coatings, (ii) MDI in spray foam applications, (iii) TDI in manufacture of foam, (iv) TDI in manufacture of PUs and PU composite materials, (v) TDI in adhesives, (vi) MDI in adhesives, (vii) MDI in manufacture of PUs and PU composite materials, (viii) TDI in coatings, (ix) MDI in manufacture of foam, and (x) HDI in adhesives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dag Rother
- Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (BAuA), Division 4 - Hazardous Substances and Biological Agents, Unit 4.1 - Exposure Scenarios, Friedrich-Henkel-Weg 1, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Urs Schlüter
- Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (BAuA), Division 4 - Hazardous Substances and Biological Agents, Unit 4.1 - Exposure Scenarios, Friedrich-Henkel-Weg 1, Dortmund, Germany
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Scholten B, Kenny L, Duca RC, Pronk A, Santonen T, Galea KS, Loh M, Huumonen K, Sleeuwenhoek A, Creta M, Godderis L, Jones K. Biomonitoring for Occupational Exposure to Diisocyanates: A Systematic Review. Ann Work Expo Health 2020; 64:569-585. [PMID: 32313948 PMCID: PMC7328470 DOI: 10.1093/annweh/wxaa038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2019] [Revised: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Diisocyanates are a group of chemicals that are widely used in occupational settings. They are known to induce various health effects, including skin- and respiratory tract sensitization resulting in allergic dermatitis and asthma. Exposure to diisocyanates has been studied in the past decades by using different types of biomonitoring markers and matrices. The aim of this review as part of the HBM4EU project was to assess: (i) which biomarkers and matrices have been used for biomonitoring diisocyanates and what are their strengths and limitations; (ii) what are (current) biomonitoring levels of the major diisocyanates (and metabolites) in workers; and (iii) to characterize potential research gaps. For this purpose we conducted a systematic literature search for the time period 2000-end 2018, thereby focussing on three types of diisocyanates which account for the vast majority of the total isocyanate market volume: hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI), toluene diisocyanate (TDI), and 4,4'-methylenediphenyl diisocyanate (MDI). A total of 28 publications were identified which fulfilled the review inclusion criteria. The majority of these studies (93%) investigated the corresponding diamines in either urine or plasma, but adducts have also been investigated by several research groups. Studies on HDI were mostly in the motor vehicle repair industry [with urinary hexamethylene diamine result ranging from 0.03 to 146.5 µmol mol-1 creatinine]. For TDI, there is mostly data on foam production [results for urinary toluene diamine ranging from ~0.01 to 97 µmol mol-1 creatinine] whereas the available MDI data are mainly from the polyurethane industry (results for methylenediphenyl diamine range from 0.01 to 32.7 µmol mol-1 creatinine). About half of the studies published were prior to 2010 hence might not reflect current workplace exposure. There is large variability within and between studies and across sectors which could be potentially explained by several factors including worker or workplace variability, short half-lives of biomarkers, and differences in sampling strategies and analytical techniques. We identified several research gaps which could further be taken into account when studying diisocyanates biomonitoring levels: (i) the development of specific biomarkers is promising (e.g. to study oligomers of HDI which have been largely neglected to date) but needs more research before they can be widely applied, (ii) since analytical methods differ between studies a more uniform approach would make comparisons between studies easier, and (iii) dermal absorption seems a possible exposure route and needs to be further investigated. The use of MDI, TDI, and HDI has been recently proposed to be restricted in the European Union unless specific conditions for workers' training and risk management measures apply. This review has highlighted the need for a harmonized approach to establishing a baseline against which the success of the restriction can be evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernice Scholten
- Risk Assessment for Products in Development, TNO Quality of Life, Zeist, The Netherlands
| | - Laura Kenny
- Health and Safety Executive (HSE), Harpur Hill, Buxton, UK
| | - Radu-Corneliu Duca
- Unit Environmental Hygiene and Human Biological Monitoring, Department of Health Protection, National Health Laboratory, Dudelange, Luxembourg
| | - Anjoeka Pronk
- Risk Assessment for Products in Development, TNO Quality of Life, Zeist, The Netherlands
| | | | - Karen S Galea
- Centre for Human Exposure Science (CHES), Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM), Edinburgh, UK
| | - Miranda Loh
- Centre for Human Exposure Science (CHES), Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM), Edinburgh, UK
| | | | - Anne Sleeuwenhoek
- Centre for Human Exposure Science (CHES), Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM), Edinburgh, UK
| | - Matteo Creta
- Centre Environment and Health, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Lode Godderis
- Centre Environment and Health, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- External Service for Prevention and Protection at Work, Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Kate Jones
- Health and Safety Executive (HSE), Harpur Hill, Buxton, UK
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Bello A, Xue Y, Gore R, Woskie S, Bello D. Assessment and control of exposures to polymeric methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (pMDI) in spray polyurethane foam applicators. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2019; 222:804-815. [PMID: 31076286 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2019.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Revised: 04/27/2019] [Accepted: 04/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
In this work we characterize personal inhalation and dermal exposures to diphenyl methane diisocyanate (MDI) and other species in polymeric MDI (pMDI) formulations during spray polyurethane foam (SPF) insulation at 14 sites in New England. We further assess the adequacy of current workplace practices and exposure controls via comparative urinary biomonitoring of the corresponding methylene diphenyl diamine (MDA) pre- and post-shift. MDI and pMDI are potent dermal and respiratory sensitizers and asthmagens, strong irritants of the skin, eyes, and the respiratory tract, and may cause skin burns. This study is the first comprehensive report to-date on the work practices, inhalation and dermal exposures to isocyanates and effectiveness of existing controls during SPF applications. Breathing zone exposures to 4,4' MDI (n = 31; 24 sprayers, 7 helpers) ranged from 0.9 to 123.0 μg/m3 and had a geometric mean (GM) of 13.8 μg/m3 and geometric standard deviation (GSD) of 4.8. Stationary near field area samples (n = 15) were higher than personal exposures: GM, 40.9 (GSD, 3.9) μg/m3, range 1.4-240.8 μg/m3. Sixteen percent of personal air samples and 35% of area samples exceeded the National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety's (NIOSH) full shift recommended exposure limit (REL) of 50 μg/m3, assuming zero exposure for the unsampled time. 4,4' MDI load on the glove dosimeters had a GM of 11.4 (GSD 2.9) μg/glove pair/min, suggesting high potential for dermal exposures. Urinary MDA had a GM of 0.7 (GSD, 3.0) μmol MDA/mol creatinine (range, nd-14.5 μmol MDA/mol creatinine). Twenty-five % of urine samples exceeded the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) biological monitoring guidance value (BMGV) of 1 μmol MDA/mol creatinine. We further report on field observations regarding current exposure controls, discuss implications of these findings and opportunities for improving work practices to prevent isocyanate exposures during SPF insulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anila Bello
- University of Massachusetts Lowell, Department of Public Health, Zuckerberg College of Health Sciences, Lowell, MA, 01854, USA.
| | - Yalong Xue
- University of Massachusetts Lowell, Department of Chemistry, Kennedy College of Sciences, Lowell, MA, 01854, USA
| | - Rebecca Gore
- University of Massachusetts Lowell, Department of Public Health, Zuckerberg College of Health Sciences, Lowell, MA, 01854, USA
| | - Susan Woskie
- University of Massachusetts Lowell, Department of Public Health, Zuckerberg College of Health Sciences, Lowell, MA, 01854, USA
| | - Dhimiter Bello
- University of Massachusetts Lowell, Department of Biomedical and Nutritional Sciences, Zuckerberg College of Health Sciences, Lowell, MA, 01854, USA
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Robbins Z, Bodnar W, Zhang Z, Gold A, Nylander-French LA. Trisaminohexyl isocyanurate, a urinary biomarker of HDI isocyanurate exposure. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2018; 1076:117-129. [PMID: 29406025 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2018.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2017] [Revised: 01/12/2018] [Accepted: 01/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Biological monitoring of occupational exposure to 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI)-containing spray-paints is limited to analysis of metabolites of HDI monomer although polymeric HDI isocyanurate constitutes the predominant inhalation and skin exposure for workers in the automotive paint industry. A novel method using nanoflow ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to nano-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (nano-UPLC-ESI-MS/MS) was developed to quantify trisaminohexyl isocyanurate (TAHI), a hydrolysis product of HDI isocyanurate, in the urine of spray-painters. Analytical and internal standards were synthesized in-house and weighted linear regression calibration curves were generated using spiked control urine from non-exposed persons (0.06-7.98 μg/L; N = 13; w = x-2; r = 0.998). Urine samples collected from 15 exposed workers (N = 111) were subjected to acid hydrolysis and extracted with dichloromethane, then derivatized with acetic anhydride. The derivatized product, trisacetamidohexyl isocyanurate (TAAHI), was analyzed using nano-UPLC-ESI-MS/MS. The protocol was sensitive and specific for analysis of TAHI in the urine of exposed workers with a method detection limit at 0.03 μg/L. TAHI was detected in 33 of 111 urine samples and in 11 of 15 workers. This biomarker for HDI isocyanurate is critical to determine the relative potency and dose-relationships between the monomer and oligomer exposure on the development of diisocyanate induced health effects in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary Robbins
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Wanda Bodnar
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Zhenfa Zhang
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Avram Gold
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Leena A Nylander-French
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
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Abstract
Arylamines and nitroarenes are intermediates in the production of pharmaceuticals, dyes, pesticides, and plastics and are important environmental and occupational pollutants. N-Hydroxyarylamines are the toxic common intermediates of arylamines and nitroarenes. N-Hydroxyarylamines and their derivatives can form adducts with hemoglobin (Hb-adducts), albumin, DNA, and tissue proteins in a dose-dependent manner. Most of the arylamine Hb-adducts are labile and undergo hydrolysis in vitro, by mild acid or base, to form the arylamines. According to current knowledge of arylamine adduct-formation, the hydrolyzable fraction is derived from the reaction products of the arylnitroso derivatives that yield arylsulfinamide adducts with cysteine. Hb-adducts are markers for the bioavailability of N-hydroxyarylamines. Hb-adducts of arylamines and nitroarenes have been used for many biomonitoring studies for over 30 years. Hb-adducts reflect the exposure history of the last four months. Biomonitoring of urinary metabolites is a less invasive process than biomonitoring blood protein adducts, and urinary metabolites have served as short-lived biomarkers of exposure to these hazardous chemicals. However, in case of intermittent exposure, urinary metabolites may not be detected, and subjects may be misclassified as nonexposed. Arylamines and nitroarenes and/or their metabolites have been measured in urine, especially to monitor the exposure of workers. This review summarizes the results of human biomonitoring studies involving urinary metabolites and Hb-adducts of arylamines and nitroarenes. In addition, studies about the relationship between Hb-adducts and diseases are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Sabbioni
- Institute of Environmental and Occupational Toxicology , Casella Postale 108, CH-6780 Airolo, Switzerland.,Alpine Institute of Chemistry and Toxicology , CH-6718 Olivone, Switzerland.,Walther-Straub-Institut für Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität , D-80336 München, Germany
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Sabbioni G, Dongari N, Sepai O, Kumar A. Determination of albumin adducts of 4,4'-methylenediphenyl diisocyanate in workers of a 4,4'-methylenedianiline factory. Biomarkers 2016; 21:731-738. [PMID: 27145381 DOI: 10.3109/1354750x.2016.1172117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Lung sensitization and asthma are the main health effects of 4,4'-methylenediphenyl diisocyanate (MDI). Albumin adducts (isocyanate specific adducts) of MDI might be involved in the etiology of sensitization reactions. Albumin adducts of MDI have been found in subjects classified as 4,4'-methylenedianiline (MDA) workers. The mean adduct levels in these MDA-workers were 1.5 times higher than in MDI-workers of the same company. MDA-specific hemoglobin adducts, were present ten times more in the MDA-workers than in the MDI-workers. MDA-workers with specific work task had significantly higher albumin adduct levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Sabbioni
- a Institute of Environmental and Occupational Toxicology , Airolo , Switzerland.,b Walther-Straub-Institut für Pharmakologie und Toxikologie , Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität , München , Germany.,c Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine , Tulane University , New Orleans , LA , USA
| | - Nagaraju Dongari
- c Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine , Tulane University , New Orleans , LA , USA.,d National Laboratories Inc , Detroit , MI , USA
| | - Ovnair Sepai
- e Insitutut für Pharmakologie und Toxikologie , Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg , Würzburg , Germany
| | - Anoop Kumar
- c Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine , Tulane University , New Orleans , LA , USA
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Morfeld P, Noll B, Blumberg W, Bauden R, Strobl D, Bock E, Küpper U, Gross E, Schauhoff S. Cyanurchloridbelastung in Produktionsbetrieben. ZENTRALBLATT FÜR ARBEITSMEDIZIN, ARBEITSSCHUTZ UND ERGONOMIE 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s40664-013-0001-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Zusammenfassung
Hintergrund
Cyanurchlorid (C3Cl3N3) ist ein weißes kristallines Pulver. Es wird für die Herstellung von Herbiziden benötigt, die in der Landwirtschaft eingesetzt werden. Weitere Verwendung findet es in der Produktion von Textilfarbstoffen und optischen Aufhellern oder der Herstellung von UV-Stabilisatoren für die Plastikindustrie sowie insbesondere für Automobilanwendungen in der Gummiindustrie. Zur Durchführung einer epidemiologischen Längsschnittstudie in drei Cyanurchloridproduktionsbetrieben wurde eine personenbezogene Expositionsermittlung durchgeführt sowie medizinische Response-Größen und wesentliche Kovariablen ermittelt.
Methoden
In den Betrieben Antwerpen, Münchsmünster und Wesseling der Evonik Industries AG wurden für alle länger als ein Jahr im Cyanurchloridbetrieb tätigen, männlichen, aktiven und ehemaligen Mitarbeiter zwischen 1958 und 2007 Cyanurchloridexpositionen, Arbeitsgeschichten, Angaben zum Rauchverhalten, biometrische Grunddaten, Lungenfunktionsparameter sowie Koexpositionen und Vorbelastungen aus vorangegangenen Tätigkeiten erfasst und auf Jahresdatensätze verdichtet. Zudem wurden Angaben zu chronischer Bronchitis, Atemnot, Asthma, chronisch-obstruktiver Bronchitis (COPD, „chronic obstructive pulmonary disease“) und Sensibilisierungsparameter im Querschnitt erhoben. Für die Zuweisung von Expositionen zu personenbezogenen Tätigkeiten wurde eine Job-Exposure-Matrix (JEM) unter Verwendung von Konzentrationsmesswerten und unter Berücksichtigung des Tragens von Schutzmasken entwickelt. Um die Unsicherheit in den Belastungen aufgrund der schmalen Messdatenbasis besser abschätzen zu können, wurden über multiple Expositionsschätzungen 24 Varianten ermittelt.
Ergebnisse
Das Studienkollektiv umfasste 394 exponierte männliche Personen. Das durchschnittliche Alter lag bei 47,5 Jahren (min. = 21, max. = 63, SD = 10,3). Es gab 160 aktive Raucher, 78 Ex-Raucher und 149 Nie-Raucher. Der Mittelwert für die zum Zeitpunkt der letzten Lungenfunktionsuntersuchung aufgelaufenen Rauchmenge lag bei den aktiven Rauchern bei 18,9 Pack years (min. = 0,3, max. = 69,5, SD = 14,9) und bei den Ex-Rauchern bei 19,4 Pack years (min. = 1,2, max. = 105,0, SD = 18,4). Die personenbezogene Durchschnittskonzentration der Cyanurchloridexposition betrug über alle Jahre im Mittel 0,019 mg/m3 (min. = 0,003, max. = 0,044) bei einer Expositionsdauer von durchschnittlich 11,3 Jahren (min. = 0,58, max. = 34). Die kumulierte Gesamtexposition betrug durchschnittlich 0,217 mg/m3-Jahre (min. = 0,005, max. = 0,941). Der Mittelwert der Cyanurchloridkonzentration pro Expositionsjahr lag bei 0,020 mg/m3 (min. = 0,003, max. = 0,051). Insgesamt standen 2983 Untersuchungen der Lungenfunktionsparameter VC (Vitalkapazität, „vital capacity“), FVC (forcierte Vitalkapazität, „forced vital capacity“) und FEV1 (absolute Einsekundenkapazität, „forced expiratory volume in 1 second“) zur Verfügung. Im Durchschnitt nahm jeder Studienteilnehmer an 7,6 medizinischen Untersuchungen mit Lungenfunktionsmessungen teil (min. = 1, max. = 19). Die VC in Prozent vom Sollwert betrug bei der ersten (letzten) Lungenfunktionsuntersuchung jedes Studienteilnehmers im Mittel 100 %, SD = 13,6 % (103 %, SD = 14,6 %). Die FVC in Prozent vom Sollwert lag im Mittel bei 103 %, SD = 14,2 % (103 %, SD = 15,4 %). Die FEV1 in Prozent vom Sollwert betrug im Mittel 99 %, SD = 15,4 % (99 %, SD = 18,3 %). Die FEV1%FVC in Prozent vom Sollwert lag im Mittel bei 99 %, SD = 10,4 % (99 %, SD = 12,2 %).
Diskussion
Die Studie stellt den weltweit umfassendsten Datenbestand zur Ermittlung der gesundheitlichen Auswirkung einer Langzeitexposition gegenüber Cyanurchlorid am Arbeitsplatz bereit. Bezogen auf externe Sollwerte ergaben die Lungenfunktionsmesswerte im Mittel keinen Hinweis auf Auffälligkeiten. Zur epidemiologischen Zusammenhangsanalyse wird in Morfeld u. Noll berichtet [41].
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Mhike M, Chipinda I, Hettick JM, Simoyi RH, Lemons A, Green BJ, Siegel PD. Characterization of methylene diphenyl diisocyanate-haptenated human serum albumin and hemoglobin. Anal Biochem 2013; 440:197-204. [PMID: 23743149 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2013.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2013] [Revised: 05/14/2013] [Accepted: 05/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Protein haptenation by polyurethane industrial intermediate 4,4'-methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) is thought to be an important step in the development of diisocyanate (dNCO)-specific allergic sensitization; however, MDI-haptenated albumins used to screen specific antibody are often poorly characterized. Recently, the need to develop standardized immunoassays using a consistent, well-characterized dNCO-haptenated protein to screen for the presence of MDI-specific IgE and IgG from workers' sera has been emphasized and recognized. This has been challenging to achieve due to the bivalent electrophilic nature of dNCOs, leading to the capability to produce multiple cross-linked protein species and polymeric additions to proteins. In the current study, MDI was reacted with human serum albumin (HSA) and hemoglobin (Hb) at molar ratios ranging from 1:1 to 40:1 MDI/protein. Adducts were characterized by (i) loss of available 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) binding to primary amines, (ii) electrophoretic migration in polyacrylamide gels, (iii) quantification of methylene diphenyl diamine following acid hydrolysis, and (iv) immunoassay. Concentration-dependent changes in all of the above noted parameters were observed, demonstrating increases in both number and complexity of conjugates formed with increasing MDI concentrations. In conclusion, a series of bioanalytical assays should be performed to standardize MDI-antigen preparations across lots and laboratories for measurement of specific antibody in exposed workers that in total indicate degree of intra- and intermolecular cross-linking, number of dNCOs bound, number of different specific binding sites on the protein, and degree of immunoreactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgen Mhike
- Allergy and Clinical Immunology Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA
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11
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Lindberg HK, Korpi A, Santonen T, Säkkinen K, Järvelä M, Tornaeus J, Ahonen N, Järventaus H, Pasanen AL, Rosenberg C, Norppa H. Micronuclei, hemoglobin adducts and respiratory tract irritation in mice after inhalation of toluene diisocyanate (TDI) and 4,4′-methylenediphenyl diisocyanate (MDI). MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2011; 723:1-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2011.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2010] [Revised: 01/17/2011] [Accepted: 03/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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12
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Budnik LT, Nowak D, Merget R, Lemiere C, Baur X. Elimination kinetics of diisocyanates after specific inhalative challenges in humans: mass spectrometry analysis, as a basis for biomonitoring strategies. J Occup Med Toxicol 2011; 6:9. [PMID: 21447151 PMCID: PMC3080353 DOI: 10.1186/1745-6673-6-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2010] [Accepted: 03/29/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Isocyanates are some of the leading occupational causes of respiratory disorders, predominantly asthma. Adequate exposure monitoring may recognize risk factors and help to prevent the onset or aggravation of these aliments. Though, the biomonitoring appears to be most suitable for exposure assessment, the sampling time is critical, however. In order to settle the optimal time point for the sample collection in a practical biomonitoring approach, we aimed to measure the elimination of isocyanate urine metabolites. Methods A simple biomonitoring method enabling detection of all major diamine metabolites, from mono-, poly- and diisocyanates in one analytical step, has been established. Urine samples from 121 patients undergoing inhalative challenge tests with diisocyanates for diagnostic reasons were separated by gas chromatography and analyzed with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) at various time points (0-24 h) after the onset of exposure. Results After controlled exposures to different concentrations of diisocyanates (496 ± 102 ppb-min or 1560 ± 420 ppb-min) the elimination kinetics (of respective isocyanate diamine metabolites) revealed differences between aliphatic and aromatic isocyanates (the latter exhibiting a slower elimination) and a dose-response relationship. No significant differences were observed, however, when the elimination time patterns for individual isocyanates were compared, in respect of either low or high exposure or in relation to the presence or absence of prior immunological sensitization. Conclusions The detection of isocyanate metabolites in hydrolyzed urine with the help of gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometric detection system appears to be the most suitable, reliable and sensitive method to monitor possible isocyanate uptake by an individual. Additionally, the information on elimination kinetic patterns must be factored into estimates of isocyanate uptake before it is possible for biomonitoring to provide realistic assessments of isocyanate exposure. The pathophysiological elimination of 1,6-hexamethylene diamine, 2,4-diamine toluene, 2,6-diamine toluene, 1,5-naphthalene diamine, 4,4'-diphenylmethane diamine and isophorone diamines (as respective metabolites of: 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate, 2,4-toluene diisocyanate and 2,6 toluene diisocyanate, 1,5-naphthalene diisocyanate, 4,4'-diphenylmethane diisocyanate and isophorone diisocyanates) differs between individual isocyanates' diamines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lygia T Budnik
- Institute for Occupational Medicine and Maritime Medicine (ZfAM), University Medical Center, Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.
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Wisnewski AV, Xu L, Robinson E, Liu J, Redlich CA, Herrick CA. Immune sensitization to methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) resulting from skin exposure: albumin as a carrier protein connecting skin exposure to subsequent respiratory responses. J Occup Med Toxicol 2011; 6:6. [PMID: 21414210 PMCID: PMC3068988 DOI: 10.1186/1745-6673-6-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2010] [Accepted: 03/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI), a reactive chemical used for commercial polyurethane production, is a well-recognized cause of occupational asthma. The major focus of disease prevention efforts to date has been respiratory tract exposure; however, skin exposure may also be an important route for inducing immune sensitization, which may promote subsequent airway inflammatory responses. We developed a murine model to investigate pathogenic mechanisms by which MDI skin exposure might promote subsequent immune responses, including respiratory tract inflammation. Methods Mice exposed via the skin to varying doses (0.1-10% w/v) of MDI diluted in acetone/olive oil were subsequently evaluated for MDI immune sensitization. Serum levels of MDI-specific IgG and IgE were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA), while respiratory tract inflammation, induced by intranasal delivery of MDI-mouse albumin conjugates, was evaluated based on bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL). Autologous serum IgG from "skin only" exposed mice was used to detect and guide the purification/identification of skin proteins antigenically modified by MDI exposure in vivo. Results Skin exposure to MDI resulted in specific antibody production and promoted subsequent respiratory tract inflammation in animals challenged intranasally with MDI-mouse albumin conjugates. The degree of (secondary) respiratory tract inflammation and eosinophilia depended upon the (primary) skin exposure dose, and was maximal in mice exposed to 1% MDI, but paradoxically limited in mice receiving 10-fold higher doses (e.g. 10% MDI). The major antigenically-modified protein at the local MDI skin exposure site was identified as albumin, and demonstrated biophysical changes consistent with MDI conjugation. Conclusions MDI skin exposure can induce MDI-specific immune sensitivity and promote subsequent respiratory tract inflammatory responses and thus, may play an important role in MDI asthma pathogenesis. MDI conjugation and antigenic modification of albumin at local (skin/respiratory tract) exposure sites may represent the common antigenic link connecting skin exposure to subsequent respiratory tract inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam V Wisnewski
- Department of Internal Medicine; Yale University School of Medicine; 300 Cedar Street; New Haven, CT; 06510, USA.
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Säkkinen K, Tornaeus J, Hesso A, Hirvonen A, Vainio H, Norppa H, Rosenberg C. Protein adducts as biomarkers of exposure to aromatic diisocyanates in workers manufacturing polyurethane (PUR) foam. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 13:957-65. [PMID: 21344094 DOI: 10.1039/c0em00595a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This work was undertaken to investigate the usefulness of diisocyanate-related protein adducts in blood samples as biomarkers of occupational exposure to toluene diisocyanate (TDI; 2,4- and 2,6-isomers) and 4,4'-methylenediphenyl diisocyanate (MDI). Quantification of adducts as toluene diamines (TDAs) and methylenedianiline (MDA) was performed on perfluoroacylated derivatives by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) in negative chemical ionisation mode. TDI-derived adducts were found in 77% of plasma and in 59% of globin samples from exposed workers manufacturing flexible polyurethane foam. The plasma levels ranged from 0.003 to 0.58 nmol mL(-1) and those in globin from 0.012 to 0.33 nmol g(-1). The 2,6-isomer amounted to about two-thirds of the sum concentration of TDA isomers. MDI-derived adducts were detected in 3.5% of plasma and in 7% of globin samples from exposed workers manufacturing rigid polyurethane foam. A good correlation was found between the sum of TDA isomers in urine and that in plasma. The relationship between globin adducts and urinary metabolites was ambiguous. Monitoring TDI-derived TDA in plasma thus appears to be an appropriate method for assessing occupational exposure. Contrary to TDI exposure, adducts in plasma or globin were not useful in assessing workers' exposure to MDI. An important outcome of the study was that no amine-related adducts were detected in globin samples from TDI- or MDI-exposed workers, alleviating concerns that TDI or MDI might pose a carcinogenic hazard. Further studies are nevertheless required to judge whether diisocyanates per se could be such a hazard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsi Säkkinen
- Work Environment Development, Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Topeliuksenkatu 41 a A, FI-00250 Helsinki, Finland
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15
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Sabbioni G, Dongari N, Kumar A. Determination of a new biomarker in subjects exposed to 4,4'-methylenediphenyl diisocyanate. Biomarkers 2010; 15:508-15. [PMID: 20553091 DOI: 10.3109/1354750x.2010.490880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
4,4'-Methylenediphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) is the most important of the isocyanates used as intermediates in the chemical industry. Among the main types of damage after exposure to low levels of MDI are lung sensitization and asthma. Albumin adducts of MDI might be involved in the etiology of sensitization reactions. This work presents a liquid chromatography (LC)-mass spectrometry (MS/MS) procedure for determination of isocyanate-specific albumin adducts in humans. MDI formed adducts with lysine of albumin: MDI-Lys and AcMDI-Lys. The MDI-Lys levels, 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th percentile, were 0, 65.2, 134, 244 fmol mg(-1) and 0, 30.5, 57.4, 95.8 fmol mg(-1) in the exposed construction and factory workers, respectively. This new biomonitoring procedure will allow assessment of suspected exposure sources and may contribute to the identification of individuals who are particularly vulnerable for developing bronchial asthma and other respiratory diseases after exposure to isocyanates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Sabbioni
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA.
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Dermal uptake and excretion of 14C-toluene diisocyante (TDI) and 14C-methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) in male rats. Clinical signs and histopathology following dermal exposure of male rats to TDI. Toxicol Lett 2010; 199:364-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2010.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2010] [Revised: 09/27/2010] [Accepted: 09/28/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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17
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Gaines LGT, Fent KW, Flack SL, Thomasen JM, Ball LM, Richardson DB, Ding K, Whittaker SG, Nylander-French LA. Urine 1,6-hexamethylene diamine (HDA) levels among workers exposed to 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 54:678-91. [PMID: 20530123 DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/meq041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Urinary 1,6-hexamethylene diamine (HDA) may serve as a biomarker for systemic exposure to 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) in occupationally exposed populations. However, the quantitative relationships between dermal and inhalation exposure to HDI and urine HDA levels have not been established. We measured acid-hydrolyzed urine HDA levels along with dermal and breathing-zone levels of HDI in 48 automotive spray painters. These measurements were conducted over the course of an entire workday for up to three separate workdays that were spaced approximately 1 month apart. One urine sample was collected before the start of work with HDI-containing paints and subsequent samples were collected during the workday. HDA levels varied throughout the day and ranged from nondetectable to 65.9 microg l(-1) with a geometric mean and geometric standard deviation of 0.10 microg l(-1) +/- 6.68. Dermal exposure and inhalation exposure levels, adjusted for the type of respirator worn, were both significant predictors of urine HDA levels in the linear mixed models. Creatinine was a significant covariate when used as an independent variable along with dermal and respirator-adjusted inhalation exposure. Consequently, exposure assessment models must account for the water content of a urine sample. These findings indicate that HDA exhibits a biphasic elimination pattern, with a half-life of 2.9 h for the fast elimination phase. Our results also indicate that urine HDA level is significantly associated with systemic HDI exposure through both the skin and the lungs. We conclude that urinary HDA may be used as a biomarker of exposure to HDI, but biological monitoring should be tailored to reliably capture the intermittent exposure pattern typical in this industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda G T Gaines
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 27599, USA
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Antigenic changes in human albumin caused by reactivity with the occupational allergen diphenylmethane diisocyanate. Anal Biochem 2010; 400:251-8. [PMID: 20123080 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2010.01.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2009] [Revised: 01/26/2010] [Accepted: 01/28/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Diphenylmethane diisocyanate (MDI), the chemical commonly used as a cross-linking agent in commercial polyurethane production, is a well-recognized cause of asthma. Reaction products between MDI and "self" proteins are hypothesized to act as antigens capable of inducing airway inflammation and asthma; however, such MDI antigens remain incompletely understood. We used a variety of analytical methods to characterize the range of MDI-albumin reaction products that form under physiological conditions. Sites of MDI conjugation on antigenic MDI-albumin products, as defined by serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) from MDI-exposed workers, were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) followed by tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). The data identified 14 MDI conjugation sites (12 lysines and 2 asparagines) on human albumin and highlight reaction specificity for the second lysine in dilysine (KK) motifs, and this may be a common characteristic of "immune-sensitizing" chemicals. Several of the MDI conjugation sites are not conserved in albumin from other species, and this may suggest species differences in epitope specificity for self protein (albumin)-isocyanate conjugates. The study also describes new applications of contemporary proteomic methodology for characterizing and standardizing MDI-albumin conjugates destined for use in clinical research.
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Davies R, Rydberg P, Westberg E, Motwani HV, Johnstone E, Törnqvist M. A New General Pathway for Synthesis of Reference Compounds of N-Terminal Valine−Isocyanate Adducts. Chem Res Toxicol 2010; 23:540-6. [DOI: 10.1021/tx900278p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ronnie Davies
- Department of Materials and Environmental Chemistry and Department of Organic Chemistry, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Per Rydberg
- Department of Materials and Environmental Chemistry and Department of Organic Chemistry, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Emelie Westberg
- Department of Materials and Environmental Chemistry and Department of Organic Chemistry, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Hitesh V. Motwani
- Department of Materials and Environmental Chemistry and Department of Organic Chemistry, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Erik Johnstone
- Department of Materials and Environmental Chemistry and Department of Organic Chemistry, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Margareta Törnqvist
- Department of Materials and Environmental Chemistry and Department of Organic Chemistry, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
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