1
|
Kander MC, Mayer AC, Wilkinson AF, Bertke S, Kesler RM, Smith DL, Horn GP, Fent KW. Evaluating workplace protection factors (WPFs) of different firefighter PPE interface control measures for select volatile organic compounds (VOCs). J Occup Environ Hyg 2024; 21:353-364. [PMID: 38560919 PMCID: PMC11073914 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2024.2323109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Structural firefighters are exposed to a complex set of contaminants and combustion byproducts, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Additionally, recent studies have found structural firefighters' skin may be exposed to multiple chemical compounds via permeation or penetration of chemical byproducts through or around personal protective equipment (PPE). This mannequin-based study evaluated the effectiveness of four different PPE conditions with varying contamination control measures (incorporating PPE interface design features and particulate blocking materials) to protect against ingress of several VOCs in a smoke exposure chamber. We also investigated the effectiveness of long-sleeve base layer clothing to provide additional protection against skin contamination. Outside gear air concentrations were measured from within the smoke exposure chamber at the breathing zone, abdomen, and thigh heights. Personal air concentrations were collected from mannequins under PPE at the same general heights and under the base layer at abdomen and thigh heights. Sampled contaminants included benzene, toluene, styrene, and naphthalene. Results suggest that VOCs can readily penetrate the ensembles. Workplace protection factors (WPFs) were near one for benzene and toluene and increased with increasing molecular weight of the contaminants. WPFs were generally lower under hoods and jackets compared to under pants. For all PPE conditions, the pants appeared to provide the greatest overall protection against ingress of VOCs, but this may be due in part to the lower air concentrations toward the floor (and cuffs of pants) relative to the thigh-height outside gear concentrations used in calculating the WPFs. Providing added interface control measures and adding particulate-blocking materials appeared to provide a protective benefit against less-volatile chemicals, like naphthalene and styrene.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Christina Kander
- Department of Environmental & Public Health Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Alexander C Mayer
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Andrea F Wilkinson
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Stephen Bertke
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Richard M Kesler
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, Maryland, USA
| | - Denise L Smith
- Health and Human Physiological Sciences, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, New York, USA
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA
| | - Gavin P Horn
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, Maryland, USA
| | - Kenneth W Fent
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Mayer AC, Fent KW, Wilkinson AF, Chen IC, Siegel MR, Toennis C, Sammons D, Meadows J, Kesler RM, Kerber S, Smith DL, Masoud F, Bhandari D, Wang Y, Blount BC, Calafat AM, Horn GP. Evaluating Exposure to VOCs and Naphthalene for Firefighters Wearing Different PPE Configurations through Measures in Air, Exhaled Breath, and Urine. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2023; 20:6057. [PMID: 37372644 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20126057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
Firefighters are at an increased risk of cancer due to their occupational exposure to combustion byproducts, especially when those compounds penetrate the firefighter personal protective equipment (PPE) ensemble. This has led to questions about the impact of base layers (i.e., shorts vs. pants) under PPE ensembles. This study asked 23 firefighters to perform firefighting activities while wearing one of three different PPE ensembles with varying degrees of protection. Additionally, half of the firefighters unzipped their jackets after the scenario while the other half kept their jackets zipped for five additional minutes. Several volatile organic compound (VOC) and naphthalene air concentrations outside and inside of hoods, turnout jackets, and turnout pants were evaluated; biological (urinary and exhaled breath) samples were also collected. VOCs and naphthalene penetrated the three sampling areas (hoods, jackets, pants). Significant (p-value < 0.05) increases from pre- to post-fire for some metabolites of VOCs (e.g., benzene, toluene) and naphthalene were found. Firefighters wearing shorts and short sleeves absorbed higher amounts of certain compounds (p-value < 0.05), and the PPE designed with enhanced interface control features appeared to provide more protection from some compounds. These results suggest that firefighters can dermally absorb VOCs and naphthalene that penetrate the PPE ensemble.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander C Mayer
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Kenneth W Fent
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Andrea F Wilkinson
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - I-Chen Chen
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Miriam R Siegel
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Christine Toennis
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Deborah Sammons
- Division of Science Integration, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Juliana Meadows
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Richard M Kesler
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, MD 21045, USA
| | - Steve Kerber
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, MD 21045, USA
| | - Denise L Smith
- Health and Human Physiological Sciences, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, USA
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Farzaneh Masoud
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Deepak Bhandari
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Yuesong Wang
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Benjamin C Blount
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Antonia M Calafat
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Gavin P Horn
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, MD 21045, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Bonner EM, Horn GP, Smith DL, Kerber S, Fent KW, Tidwell LG, Scott RP, Adams KT, Anderson KA. Silicone passive sampling used to identify novel dermal chemical exposures of firefighters and assess PPE innovations. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2023; 248:114095. [PMID: 36508961 PMCID: PMC9930175 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2022.114095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Revised: 11/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A plethora of chemicals are released into the air during combustion events, including a class of compounds called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). PAHs have been implicated in increased risk of cancer and cardiovascular disease, both of which are disease endpoints of concern in structural firefighters. Current commercially available personal protective equipment (PPE) typically worn by structural firefighters during fire responses have gaps in interfaces between the ensemble elements (e.g., hood and jacket) that allow for ingress of contaminants and dermal exposure. This pilot study aims to use silicone passive sampling to assess improvements in dermal protection afforded by a novel configuration of PPE, which incorporates a one-piece liner to eliminate gaps in two critical interfaces between pieces of gear. The study compared protection against parent and alkylated PAHs between the one-piece liner PPE and the standard configuration of PPE with traditional firefighting jacket and pants. Mannequins (n = 16) dressed in the PPE ensembles were placed in a Fireground Exposure Simulator for 10 min, and exposed to smoke from a combusting couch. Silicone passive samplers were placed underneath PPE at vulnerable locations near interfaces in standard PPE, and in the chamber air, to measure PAHs and calculate the dermal protection provided by both types of PPE. Silicone passive sampling methodology and analyses using gas chromatography with mass-spectrometry proved to be well-suited for this intervention study, allowing for the calculation and comparison of worker protection factors for 51 detected PAHs. Paired comparisons of the two PPE configurations found greater sum 2-3 ring PAH exposure underneath the standard PPE than the intervention PPE at the neck and chest, and at the chest for 4-7 ring PAHs (respective p-values: 0.00113, 0.0145, and 0.0196). Mean worker protection factors of the intervention PPE were also greater than the standard PPE for 98% of PAHs at the neck and chest. Notably, the intervention PPE showed more than 30 times the protection compared to the standard PPE against two highly carcinogenic PAHs, dibenzo[a,l]pyrene and benzo[c]fluorene. Nine of the detected PAHs in this study have not been previously reported in fireground exposure studies, and 26 other chemicals (not PAHs) were detected using a large chemical screening method on a subset of the silicone samplers. Silicone passive sampling appears to be an effective means for measuring dermal exposure reduction to fireground smoke, providing evidence in this study that reducing gaps in PPE interfaces could be further pursued as an intervention to reduce dermal exposure to PAHs, among other chemicals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emily M Bonner
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, 1007 Agricultural & Life Sciences Building, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA.
| | - Gavin P Horn
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, MD, 21045, USA; Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, 61820, USA.
| | - Denise L Smith
- Department of Health and Human Physiological Sciences, Skidmore College, 815 N Broadway St, Saratoga Springs, NY, 12866, USA; Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, 61820, USA.
| | - Steve Kerber
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, MD, 21045, USA.
| | - Kenneth W Fent
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 1090 Tusculum Ave, Cincinnati, OH, 45226, USA.
| | - Lane G Tidwell
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, 1007 Agricultural & Life Sciences Building, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA.
| | - Richard P Scott
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, 1007 Agricultural & Life Sciences Building, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA.
| | - Kaley T Adams
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, 1007 Agricultural & Life Sciences Building, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA.
| | - Kim A Anderson
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, 1007 Agricultural & Life Sciences Building, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Wilkinson AF, Fent KW, Mayer AC, Chen IC, Kesler RM, Kerber S, Smith DL, Horn GP. Use of Preliminary Exposure Reduction Practices or Laundering to Mitigate Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Contamination on Firefighter Personal Protective Equipment Ensembles. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2023; 20:2108. [PMID: 36767475 PMCID: PMC9916157 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20032108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Chronic health risks associated with firefighting continue to be documented and studied, however, the complexity of occupational exposures and the relationship between occupational exposure and contaminated personal protective equipment (PPE) remains unknown. Recent work has revealed that common PPE cleaning practices, which are becoming increasingly more common in the fire service, are not effective in removing certain contaminants, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), from PPE. To better understand the relationship between contaminated firefighter PPE and potential exposure to PAHs, and to gain further understanding of the efficacy of cleaning practices, we used a standardized fire exposure simulator that created repeatable conditions and measured PPE surface contamination levels via wipe sampling and filters attached to firefighter gear worn by standing mannequins. This study examined the effects of repeated (40 cycles) PPE cleaning (laundering and on-scene preliminary exposure reduction (PER) techniques) and repeated exposures on PAH concentration on different surfaces. Further exploration included examination of contamination breakthrough of turnout jackets (comparing outer shell and interior liner) and evaluation of off-gassing PAHs from used gear after different cleaning treatments. When compared by jacket closure type (zipper and hook and dee), total PAH concentration wiped from gear after exposure and cleanings showed no significant differences. Regression analysis indicated that there was no effect of repeated exposures on PAH contamination levels (all sampling sites combined; before fire 10, 20, and 40; after fire 1, 10, 20, and 40; p-value > 0.05). Both laundering and on-scene PER significantly reduced contamination levels on the exterior pants and helmets and were effective at reducing PAH contamination. The jacket outer shell had significantly higher PAH contamination than the jacket liner. Both laundering and wet soap PER methods (post-fire) are effective in reducing surface contamination and appear to prevent accumulation of contamination after repeated exposures. Semi-volatile PAHs deep within the fibers of bulky PPE are not effectively reduced via PER or machine laundering, therefore, permitting continued off-gassing of these compounds. Further research is needed to identify the most effective laundering methods for firefighter turnout gear that considers the broad spectrum of common contaminants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea F. Wilkinson
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Kenneth W. Fent
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Alexander C. Mayer
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - I-Chen Chen
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Richard M. Kesler
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, MD 21045, USA
| | - Steve Kerber
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, MD 21045, USA
| | - Denise L. Smith
- Health and Human Physiological Sciences, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, USA
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Gavin P. Horn
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, MD 21045, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Horn GP, Stakes K, Neumann DL, Madrzykowski D, Fent KW. Exposure Risks and Potential Control Measures for a Fire Behavior Lab Training Structure: Part B. Chemical Gas Concentrations. Fire Technol 2023; 59:3255-3282. [PMID: 38650825 PMCID: PMC11034741 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-023-01447-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Firefighters' or instructors' exposure to airborne chemicals during live-fire training may depend on fuels being burned, fuel orientation and participants' location within the structure. This study was designed to evaluate the impact of different control measures on exposure risk to combustion byproducts during fire dynamics training where fuel packages are mounted at or near the ceiling. These measures included substitution of training fuels (low density wood fiberboard, oriented strand board (OSB), pallets, particle board, plywood) and adoption of engineering controls such as changing the location of the instructor and students using the structure. Experiments were conducted for two different training durations: the typical six ventilation cycle (6-cycle) and a shorter three ventilation cycle (3-cycle) with a subset of training fuels. In Part A of this series, we characterized the fire dynamics within the structure, including the ability of each fuel to provide an environment that achieves the training objectives. Here, in Part B, airborne chemical concentrations are reported at the location where fire instructors would typically be operating. We hypothesized that utilizing a training fuel package with solid wood pallets would result in lower concentrations of airborne contaminants at the rear instructor location than wood-based sheet products containing additional resins and/or waxes. In the 6-cycle experiments (at the rear instructor location), OSB-fueled fires produced the highest median concentrations of benzene and 1,3 butadiene, plywood-fueled fires produced the highest total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations, particle board-fueled fires produced the highest methyl isocyanate concentrations, and pallet-fueled fires produced the highest hydrogen chloride concentrations. All fuels other than particle board produced similarly high levels of formaldehyde at the rear instructor location. The OSB fuel package created the most consistent fire dynamics over 6-cycles, while fiberboard resulted in consistent fire dynamics only for the first three cycles. In the follow-on 3-cycle experiment, PAH, benzene, and aldehyde concentrations were similar for the OSB and fiberboard-fueled fires. Air sampling did not identify any clear differences between training fires from burning solid wood pallets and those that incorporate wood-based sheet products for this commonly employed fuel arrangement with fuels mounted high in the compartment. However, it was found that exposure can be reduced by moving firefighters and instructors lower in the compartment and/or by moving the instructor in charge of ventilation from the rear of the structure (where highest concentrations were consistently measured) to an outside position.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gavin P Horn
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, 6200 Old Dobbin Lane, Suite 150, Columbia, MD, 21045, USA
| | - Keith Stakes
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, 6200 Old Dobbin Lane, Suite 150, Columbia, MD, 21045, USA
| | - Danielle L Neumann
- Asset and Sustainability Performance, UL Solutions, Lake Forest, CA, USA
| | - Daniel Madrzykowski
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, 6200 Old Dobbin Lane, Suite 150, Columbia, MD, 21045, USA
| | - Kenneth W Fent
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Horn GP, Fent KW, Kerber S, Smith DL. Hierarchy of contamination control in the fire service: Review of exposure control options to reduce cancer risk. J Occup Environ Hyg 2022; 19:538-557. [PMID: 35853136 PMCID: PMC9928012 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2022.2100406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The international fire service community is actively engaged in a wide range of activities focused on development, testing, and implementation of effective approaches to reduce exposure to contaminants and the related cancer risk. However, these activities are often viewed independent of each other and in the absence of the larger overall effort of occupational health risk mitigation. This narrative review synthesizes the current research on fire service contamination control in the context of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Hierarchy of Controls, a framework that supports decision making around implementing feasible and effective control solutions in occupational settings. Using this approach, we identify evidence-based measures that have been investigated and that can be implemented to protect firefighters during an emergency response, in the fire apparatus and at the fire station, and identify several knowledge gaps that remain. While a great deal of research and development has been focused on improving personal protective equipment for the various risks faced by the fire service, these measures are considered less effective. Administrative and engineering controls that can be used during and after the firefight have also received increased research interest in recent years. However, less research and development have been focused on higher level control measures such as engineering, substitution, and elimination, which may be the most effective, but are challenging to implement. A comprehensive approach that considers each level of control and how it can be implemented, and that is mindful of the need to balance contamination risk reduction against the fire service mission to save lives and protect property, is likely to be the most effective.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gavin P Horn
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, Maryland
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, Champaign, Illinois
| | - Kenneth W Fent
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Steve Kerber
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, Maryland
| | - Denise L Smith
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, Champaign, Illinois
- Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, New York
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Demers PA, DeMarini DM, Fent KW, Glass DC, Hansen J, Adetona O, Andersen MH, Freeman LEB, Caban-Martinez AJ, Daniels RD, Driscoll TR, Goodrich JM, Graber JM, Kirkham TL, Kjaerheim K, Kriebel D, Long AS, Main LC, Oliveira M, Peters S, Teras LR, Watkins ER, Burgess JL, Stec AA, White PA, DeBono NL, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, de Conti A, El Ghissassi F, Grosse Y, Stayner LT, Suonio E, Viegas S, Wedekind R, Boucheron P, Hosseini B, Kim J, Zahed H, Mattock H, Madia F, Schubauer-Berigan MK. Carcinogenicity of occupational exposure as a firefighter. Lancet Oncol 2022; 23:985-986. [PMID: 35780778 DOI: 10.1016/s1470-2045(22)00390-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paul A Demers
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | | | - Kenneth W Fent
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | | | - Johnni Hansen
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - David Kriebel
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | | | - Luana C Main
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Marta Oliveira
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Susan Peters
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Lauren R Teras
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | | | | | - Anna A Stec
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Paul A White
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | | | | | - Aline de Conti
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | | | - Yann Grosse
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | | | - Eero Suonio
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Susana Viegas
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | | | | | - Bayan Hosseini
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Joanne Kim
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Hana Zahed
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Heidi Mattock
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Federica Madia
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Fent KW, Mayer AC, Toennis C, Sammons D, Robertson S, Chen IC, Bhandari D, Blount BC, Kerber S, Smith DL, Horn GP. Firefighters' urinary concentrations of VOC metabolites after controlled-residential and training fire responses. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2022; 242:113969. [PMID: 35421664 PMCID: PMC9969558 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2022.113969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 04/02/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Firefighters are exposed to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during structural fire responses and training fires, several of which (e.g., benzene, acrolein, styrene) are known or probable carcinogens. Exposure studies have found that firefighters can absorb chemicals like benzene even when self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) are worn, suggesting that dermal absorption contributes to potentially harmful exposures. However, few studies have characterized VOC metabolites in urine from firefighters. OBJECTIVES We quantified VOC metabolites in firefighters' urine following live firefighting activity across two field studies. METHODS In two separate controlled field studies, spot urine was collected before and 3 h after firefighters and firefighter students responded to simulated residential and training fires. Urine was also collected from instructors from the training fire study before the first and 3 h after the last training scenario for each day (instructors led three training scenarios per day). Samples were analyzed for metabolites of VOCs to which firefighters may be exposed. RESULTS In the residential fire study, urinary metabolites of xylenes (2MHA), toluene (BzMA), and styrene (MADA) increased significantly (at 0.05 level) from pre- to post-fire. In the training fire study, MADA concentrations increased significantly from pre- to post-fire for both firefighter students and instructors. Urinary concentrations of benzene metabolites (MUCA and PhMA) increased significantly from pre- to post-fire for instructors, while metabolites of xylenes (3MHA+4MHA) and acrolein (3HPMA) increased significantly for firefighter students. The two highest MUCA concentrations measured post-shift from instructors exceeded the BEI of 500 μg/g creatinine. CONCLUSIONS Some of the metabolites that were significantly elevated post-fire are known or probable human carcinogens (benzene, styrene, acrolein); thus, exposure to these compounds should be eliminated or reduced as much as possible through the hierarchy of controls. Given stringent use of SCBA, it appears that dermal exposure contributes in part to the levels measured here.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth W. Fent
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Alexander C. Mayer
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | | | - Deborah Sammons
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, NIOSH, CDC, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | | | - I-Chen Chen
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Deepak Bhandari
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Benjamin C. Blount
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Steve Kerber
- Fire Safety Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories Inc, Columbia, MD, USA
| | - Denise L. Smith
- Health and Human Physiological Sciences, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, NY, USA, Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Gavin P. Horn
- Fire Safety Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories Inc, Columbia, MD, USA, Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Mayer AC, Fent KW, Wilkinson A, Chen IC, Kerber S, Smith DL, Kesler RM, Horn GP. Characterizing exposure to benzene, toluene, and naphthalene in firefighters wearing different types of new or laundered PPE. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2022; 240:113900. [PMID: 34902715 PMCID: PMC9903203 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2021.113900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The fire service has become more aware of the potential for adverse health outcomes due to occupational exposure to hazardous combustion byproducts. Because of these concerns, personal protective equipment (PPE) manufacturers have developed new protection concepts like particulate-blocking hoods to reduce firefighters' exposures. Additionally, fire departments have implemented exposure reduction interventions like routine laundering of PPE after fire responses. This study utilized a fireground exposure simulator (FES) with 24 firefighters performing firefighting activities on three consecutive days wearing one of three PPE ensembles (stratified by hood design and treatment of PPE): 1) new knit hood, new turnout jacket and new turnout pants 2) new particulate-blocking hood, new turnout jacket and new turnout pants or 3) laundered particulate-blocking hood, laundered turnout jacket and laundered turnout pants. As firefighters performed the firefighting activities, personal air sampling on the outside and inside the turnout jacket was conducted to quantify exposures to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and naphthalene. Pre- and immediately post-fire exhaled breath samples were collected to characterize the absorption of VOCs. Benzene, toluene, and naphthalene were found to diffuse through and/or around the turnout jacket, as inside jacket benzene concentrations were often near levels reported outside the turnout jacket (9.7-11.7% median benzene reduction from outside the jacket to inside the jacket). The PPE ensemble did not appear to affect the level of contamination found inside the jacket for the compounds evaluated here. Benzene concentrations in exhaled breath increased significantly from pre to post-fire for all three groups (p-values < 0.05). The difference of pre-to post-fire benzene exhaled breath concentrations were positively associated with inside jacket and outside jacket benzene concentrations, even though self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) were worn during each response. This suggests the firefighters can absorb these compounds via the dermal route.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander C. Mayer
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Kenneth W. Fent
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Andrea Wilkinson
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - I-Chen Chen
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Steve Kerber
- Fire Safety Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories, Columbia, MD, USA
| | - Denise L. Smith
- Health and Human Physiological Sciences, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, NY, USA,Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Richard M. Kesler
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Gavin P. Horn
- Fire Safety Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories, Columbia, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
Fire investigators may be occupationally exposed to many of the same compounds as the more widely studied fire suppression members of the fire service but are often tasked with working in a given exposure for longer periods ranging from hours to multiple days and may do so with limited personal protective equipment. In this study, we characterize the area air concentrations of contaminants during post-fire investigation of controlled residential fires with furnishings common to current bedroom, kitchen and living room fires in the United States. Area air sampling was conducted during different investigation phases including when investigations might be conducted immediately after fire suppression and extended out to 5 days after the fire. Airborne particulate over a wide range of dimensions, including sub-micron particles, were elevated to potentially unhealthy levels (based on air quality index) when averaged over a 60 min investigation period shortly after fire suppression with median PM2.5 levels over 100 µg/m3 (range 16-498 µg/m3) and median peak transient concentrations of 1,090 µg/m3 (range 200-23,700 µg/m3) during drywall removal or shoveling activities. Additionally, airborne aldehyde concentrations were elevated compared to volatile organic compounds with peak values of formaldehyde exceeding NIOSH ceiling limits during the earliest investigation periods (median 356 µg/m3, range: 140-775 µg/m3) and occasionally 1 day post-fire when the structure was boarded up before subsequent investigation activities. These results highlight the need to protect investigators' airways from particulates when fire investigation activities are conducted as well as during post-fire reconstruction activities. Additionally, vapor protection from formaldehyde should be strongly considered at least through investigations occurring 3 days after the fire and personal formaldehyde air monitoring is recommended during investigations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gavin P. Horn
- Fire Safety Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories Inc.; Columbia, MD
| | - Daniel Madrzykowski
- Fire Safety Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories Inc.; Columbia, MD
| | | | | | - Kenneth W. Fent
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Mayer AC, Fent KW, Chen IC, Sammons D, Toennis C, Robertson S, Kerber S, Horn GP, Smith DL, Calafat AM, Ospina M, Sjodin A. Characterizing exposures to flame retardants, dioxins, and furans among firefighters responding to controlled residential fires. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2021; 236:113782. [PMID: 34119852 PMCID: PMC8325627 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2021.113782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Firefighters may encounter items containing flame retardants (FRs), including organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), during structure fires. This study utilized biological monitoring to characterize FR exposures in 36 firefighters assigned to interior, exterior, and overhaul job assignments, before and after responding to controlled residential fire scenarios. Firefighters provided four urine samples (pre-fire and 3-h, 6-h, and 12-h post-fire) and two serum samples (pre-fire and approximately 23-h post-fire). Urine samples were analyzed for OPFR metabolites, while serum samples were analyzed for PBDEs, brominated and chlorinated furans, and chlorinated dioxins. Urinary concentrations of diphenyl phosphate (DPhP), a metabolite of triphenyl phosphate (TPhP), bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BDCPP), a metabolite of tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCPP), and bis(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (BCEtP), a metabolite of tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), increased from pre-fire to 3-hr and 6-hr post-fire collection, but only the DPhP increase was statistically significant at a 0.05 level. The 3-hr and 6-hr post-fire concentrations of DPhP and BDCPP, as well as the pre-fire concentration of BDCPP, were statistically significantly higher than general population levels. BDCPP pre-fire concentrations were statistically significantly higher in firefighters who previously participated in a scenario (within the past 12 days) than those who were responding to their first scenario as part of the study. Similarly, firefighters previously assigned to interior job assignments had higher pre-fire concentrations of BDCPP than those previously assigned to exterior job assignments. Pre-fire serum concentrations of 2,3,4,7,8-pentachlorodibenzofuran (23478-PeCDF), a known human carcinogen, were also statistically significantly above the general population levels. Of the PBDEs quantified, only decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) pre- and post-fire serum concentrations were statistically significantly higher than the general population. These results suggest firefighters absorbed certain FRs while responding to fire scenarios.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander C Mayer
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH, USA.
| | - Kenneth W Fent
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - I-Chen Chen
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Deborah Sammons
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, NIOSH, CDC, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | | | | | - Steve Kerber
- Firefighter Safety Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories, Columbia, MD, USA
| | - Gavin P Horn
- Firefighter Safety Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories, Columbia, MD, USA; Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Denise L Smith
- Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, NY, USA; Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Antonia M Calafat
- Division of Laboratory Services, National Center for Environmental Health, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Maria Ospina
- Division of Laboratory Services, National Center for Environmental Health, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Andreas Sjodin
- Division of Laboratory Services, National Center for Environmental Health, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Kesler RM, Mayer A, Fent KW, Chen IC, Deaton AS, Ormond RB, Smith DL, Wilkinson A, Kerber S, Horn GP. Effects of firefighting hood design, laundering and doffing on smoke protection, heat stress and wearability. Ergonomics 2021; 64:755-767. [PMID: 33393449 PMCID: PMC9066276 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2020.1867241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Firefighter hoods must provide protection from elevated temperatures and products of combustion (e.g. particulate) while simultaneously being wearable (comfortable and not interfering with firefighting activities). The purpose of this study was to quantify the impact of (1) hood design (traditional knit hood vs particulate-blocking hood), (2) repeated laundering, and (3) hood removal method (traditional vs overhead doffing) on (a) protection from soot contamination on the neck, (b) heat stress and (c) wearability measures. Using a fireground exposure simulator, 24 firefighters performed firefighting activities in realistic smoke and heat conditions using a new knit hood, new particulate-blocking hood and laundered particulate-blocking hood. Overall, soot contamination levels measured from neck skin were lower when wearing the laundered particulate-blocking hoods compared to new knit hoods, and when using the overhead hood removal process. No significant differences in skin temperature, core temperature, heart rate or wearability measures were found between the hood conditions. Practitioner Summary: The addition of a particulate-blocking layer to firefighters' traditional two-ply hood was found to reduce the PAH contamination reaching the neck but did not affect heat stress measurements or thermal perceptions. Modifying the process for hood removal resulted in a larger reduction in neck skin contamination than design modification. Abbreviations: ANOVA: analysis of variance; B: new particulate-blocking hood and PPE (PPE configuration); FES: fireground exposure simulator; GI: gastrointestinal; K: new knit hood and PPE (PPE configuration); L: laundered particulate-blocking hood and PPE (PPE configuration); LOD: limit of detection; MLE: maximum likelihood estimation; NFPA: National fire protection association; PAH: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon; PPE: personal protective equipment; SCBA: self-contained breathing apparatus; THL: total heat loss; TPP: thermal protective performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard M. Kesler
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Alex Mayer
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Kenneth W. Fent
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - I-Chen Chen
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | | | | | - Denise L. Smith
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
- Skidmore College; Saratoga Springs, NY, USA
| | - Andrea Wilkinson
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH, USA
- Skidmore College; Saratoga Springs, NY, USA
| | - Steve Kerber
- Underwriters Laboratories Firefighter Safety Research Institute; Columbia, MD, USA
| | - Gavin P. Horn
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
- Underwriters Laboratories Firefighter Safety Research Institute; Columbia, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Lefferts EC, Rosenberg AJ, Grigoriadis G, Wee SO, Kerber S, Fent KW, Horn GP, Smith DL, Fernhall B. Firefighter hemodynamic responses to different fire training environments. Vasc Med 2021; 26:240-246. [PMID: 33606968 PMCID: PMC8170364 DOI: 10.1177/1358863x20987608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Firefighting is associated with an increased risk for a cardiovascular (CV) event, likely due to increased CV strain. The increase in CV strain during firefighting can be attributed to the interaction of several factors such as the strenuous physical demand, sympathetic nervous system activation, increased thermal burden, and the environmental exposure to smoke pollutants. Characterizing the impact of varying thermal burden and pollutant exposure on hemodynamics may help understand the CV burden experienced during firefighting. The purpose of this study was to examine the hemodynamic response of firefighters to training environments created by pallets and straw; oriented strand board (OSB); or simulated fire/smoke (fog). Twenty-three firefighters had brachial blood pressure measured and central blood pressure and hemodynamics estimated from the pressure waveform at baseline, and immediately and 30 minutes after each scenario. The training environment did not influence the hemodynamic response over time (interaction, p > 0.05); however, OSB scenarios resulted in higher pulse wave velocity and blood pressure (environment, p < 0.05). In conclusion, conducting OSB training scenarios appears to create the largest arterial burden in firefighters compared to other scenarios in this study. Environmental thermal burden in combination with the strenuous exercise, and psychological and environmental stress placed on firefighters should be considered when designing fire training scenarios and evaluating CV risk.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth C Lefferts
- Department of Kinesiology &
Nutrition, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Alexander J Rosenberg
- Department of Kinesiology &
Nutrition, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Georgios Grigoriadis
- Department of Kinesiology &
Nutrition, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Sang Ouk Wee
- Department of Kinesiology, California
State University San Bernardino, San Bernardino, CA, USA
| | - Stephen Kerber
- UL Firefighter Safety Research
Institute, Columbia, MD, USA
| | - Kenneth W Fent
- National Institute for Occupational
Safety & Health, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Gavin P Horn
- UL Firefighter Safety Research
Institute, Columbia, MD, USA
- Fire Service Institute, University of
Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Denise L Smith
- Fire Service Institute, University of
Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
- Department of Health and Human
Physiological Sciences, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, NY, USA
| | - Bo Fernhall
- Department of Kinesiology &
Nutrition, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Horn GP, Kerber S, Andrews J, Kesler RM, Newman H, Stewart JW, Fent KW, Smith DL. Impact of Repeated Exposure and Cleaning on Protective Properties of Structural Firefighting Turnout Gear. Fire Technol 2021; 57:791-813. [PMID: 35673328 PMCID: PMC9170133 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-020-01021-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The US fire service has become acutely aware of the need to clean PPE after fires. However, there is concern that damage from repeated cleaning may impact critical protection from fireground risk. Using a protocol that included repeated simulated fireground exposures (between 0 and 40 cycles) and/or repeated cleaning with techniques common in the fire service, we found that several important protective properties of NFPA 1971 compliant turnout gear are significantly changed. Outer shell and thermal liner tear strength showed a statistically significant reduction when laundered as compared to wet or dry decontamination. Larger changes in outer shell tear strength resulted when the coat closure incorporated hook & dee clasps as compared with garments using zippered closures. Total Heat Loss (THL) was reduced for all samples that underwent any form of cleaning while Thermal Protective Performance (TPP) was only increased in the gear that was laundered. These results suggest that some important protective properties of bunker gear can be decreased after repeated exposure/cleaning cycles relative to their levels when tested in a new condition. For the specific materials tested, outer shell trap tear strength in the fill direction and seam strength dropped below NFPA 1971 requirements after 40 laundering cycles. The findings for this study may have utility for setting preconditions for the measurement of certain performance properties in future editions of NFPA 1971.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gavin P. Horn
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
- UL Firefighter Safety Research Institute; Columbia, MD, USA
| | - Steve Kerber
- UL Firefighter Safety Research Institute; Columbia, MD, USA
| | | | - Richard M. Kesler
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Hannah Newman
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Jacob W. Stewart
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Kenneth W. Fent
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Denise L. Smith
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
- Skidmore College; Saratoga Springs, NY USA
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Firefighting-related environmental and physiological factors associated with cardiovascular strain may promote arrhythmias and myocardial ischemia, which induce sudden cardiac events (SCE) in susceptible individuals. The present study evaluated electrocardiographic (ECG) changes that may reflect increased SCE risk following simulated live-firefighting. METHODS Using a repeated measures design, ECG tracings from 32 firefighters were recorded 12-hours post-firefighting in a residential structure and compared with a 12-hour control period. RESULTS Ventricular arrhythmias were present in 20%, and ST segment changes indicative of myocardial ischemia in 16%, of firefighters 12-hours post-firefighting that were not detected in the control period. CONCLUSION Live-firefighting induces significant ECG changes that include ventricular arrhythmias and ST segment changes, which may reflect myocardial ischemia. The implications of such ECG changes explaining increased cardiovascular risk in firefighters warrants further research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Denise L Smith
- Department of Health and Human Physiological Sciences, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, New York (Dr Smith, Dr Rowland); Illinois Fire Service Institute (Dr Smith, Dr Horn, Mr Kesler); Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois (Dr Horn), Urbana-Champaign; Department of Kinesiology & Nutrition, Integrative Physiology Laboratory, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (Dr Fernhall), Illinois; Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Ohio (Dr Fent); and Firefighter Safety Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories (UL), Columbia, Maryland (Mr Kerber)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Mayer A, Horn GP, Fent KW, Bertke S, Kerber S, Kesler RM, Newman H, Smith DL. Impact of select PPE design elements and repeated laundering in firefighter protection from smoke exposure. J Occup Environ Hyg 2020; 17:505-514. [PMID: 32990508 PMCID: PMC8609407 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2020.1811869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
As the Fire Service becomes more aware of the potential health effects from occupational exposure to hazardous contaminants, personal protective equipment (PPE) manufacturers, and fire departments have responded by developing and implementing improved means of firefighter protection, including more frequent laundering of PPE after exposures. While laboratory testing of new PPE designs and the effect of laundering on PPE fabric provides a useful way to evaluate these approaches, laboratory scale testing does not necessarily translate to full garment protection. Utilizing a fireground smoke exposure simulator, along with air and/or filter-substrate sampling for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and benzene, this pilot study tested the chemical-protective capabilities of firefighting PPE of different designs (knit hood vs. particulate-blocking hood, turnout jacket with zipper closure vs. hook & dee closure), including the impact of repeatedly exposing and cleaning (through laundering or decontamination on-scene) PPE 40 times. Overall, PAH contamination on filters under hoods in the neck region were higher (median PAHs = 14.7 µg) than samples taken under jackets in the chest region (median PAHs = 7.05 µg). PAH levels measured under particulate-blocking hoods were lower than levels found under knit hoods. Similarly, zippered closures were found to provide a greater reduction in PAHs compared to hook & dee closures. However, neither design element completely eliminated contaminant ingress. Measurements for benzene under turnout jackets were similar to ambient chamber air concentrations, indicating little to no attenuation from the PPE. The effect of laundering or on-scene decontamination on contaminant breakthrough appeared to depend on the type of contaminant. Benzene breakthrough was negatively associated with laundering, while PAH breakthrough was positively associated. More research is needed to identify PPE features that reduce breakthrough, how targeted changes impact exposures, and how fireground exposures relate to biological absorption of contaminants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Mayer
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH
| | - Gavin P. Horn
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL
- UL Firefighter Safety Research Institute; Columbia, MD
| | - Kenneth W. Fent
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH
| | - Steve Bertke
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH
| | - Steve Kerber
- UL Firefighter Safety Research Institute; Columbia, MD
| | - Richard M. Kesler
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL
| | - Hannah Newman
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL
| | - Denise L. Smith
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL
- Skidmore College, Health and Human Physiological Sciences Department; Saratoga Springs, NY
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Fent KW, LaGuardia M, Luellen D, McCormick S, Mayer A, Chen IC, Kerber S, Smith D, Horn GP. Flame retardants, dioxins, and furans in air and on firefighters' protective ensembles during controlled residential firefighting. Environ Int 2020; 140:105756. [PMID: 32388249 PMCID: PMC9989945 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Structure fires that involve modern furnishings may emit brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs), as well as brominated and chlorinated dioxins and furans, into the environment. OBJECTIVES The goal of this study was to quantify the airborne and personal protective equipment (PPE) contamination levels of these compounds during controlled residential fires in the U.S., and to evaluate gross-decontamination measures. METHODS Bulk-sampling was done to confirm the presence of flame retardants (FRs) in the furnishings used in 12 controlled residential structure fires. Area air samples were collected during the fires and PPE wipe samples were collected from the firefighters' turnout jackets and gloves after firefighting. For each fire, half of the jackets were decontaminated and the other half were not. RESULTS Of the BFRs and OPFRs measured in air during the fire period, decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) and triphenyl phosphate (TPP) were the most abundant, with medians of 15.6 and 408 µg/m3, respectively, and were also detected during overhaul. These and several other BFRs and OPFRs were measured on PPE. Some gloves had contaminant levels exceeding 100 ng/cm2 and were generally more contaminated than jackets. Air and surface levels of the brominated furans appeared to be higher than the chlorinated dioxins and furans. Routine gross decontamination appeared to reduce many of the BFR contaminants, but results for the OPFRs were mixed. CONCLUSIONS Structure fires are likely to result in a variety of FRs, dioxins, and furans into the environment, leading to PPE contamination for those working on the fireground. Firefighters should wear self-contained breathing apparatus during all phases of the response and launder or decontaminate their PPE (including gloves) after fire events.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth W Fent
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
| | - Mark LaGuardia
- Department of Aquatic Health Sciences, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA, USA
| | - Drew Luellen
- Department of Aquatic Health Sciences, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA, USA
| | - Seth McCormick
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Alexander Mayer
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - I-Chen Chen
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Steve Kerber
- Firefighter Safety Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories, Columbia, MD, USA
| | - Denise Smith
- Health and Human Physiological Sciences Department, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, NY, USA; Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Gavin P Horn
- Firefighter Safety Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories, Columbia, MD, USA; Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Restaino RM, Horn GP, Kerber S, Fent KW, Fernhall B, Smith DL. Acute Effects Of Firefighting On Vascular Health And Blood Pressure. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2020. [DOI: 10.1249/01.mss.0000684288.68517.47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
19
|
Horn GP, Kerber S, Lattz J, Kesler RM, Smith DL, Mayer A, Fent KW. Development of Fireground Exposure Simulator (FES) Prop for PPE Testing and Evaluation. Fire Technol 2020; 56:2331-2344. [PMID: 35673363 PMCID: PMC9170156 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-020-00981-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Research on the performance of personal protective equipment (PPE) for the Fire Service is challenged by the ability to repeatedly and feasibly test new designs, interventions and wear trials in realistic conditions that appropriately simulate end use environments. To support firefighter PPE research and firefighter PPE acclimation/training, a multidisciplinary team has developed a low cost, easily replicable approach for simulating conditions commonly encountered by firefighters operating on the interior of a residential structure fire. The testing enclosure can be used with either stationary mannequins or firefighters conducting typical fireground activities, providing a method to study a wide range of PPE and physiological studies as well as training activities that may support developing new technologies and standardized testing opportunities. Environmental gas concentrations and firefighters' local temperatures were measured during trials and compared to data collected from simulated fireground activities and fireground responses with good agreement.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gavin P. Horn
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL
- UL Firefighter Safety Research Institute; Columbia, MD
| | - Steve Kerber
- UL Firefighter Safety Research Institute; Columbia, MD
| | - Jeffery Lattz
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL
| | - Richard M. Kesler
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL
| | - Denise L. Smith
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL
- Skidmore College, Health and Human Physiological Sciences Department; Saratoga Springs, NY
| | - Alex Mayer
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH
| | - Kenneth W. Fent
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Fent KW, Toennis C, Sammons D, Robertson S, Bertke S, Calafat AM, Pleil JD, Wallace MAG, Kerber S, Smith D, Horn GP. Firefighters' absorption of PAHs and VOCs during controlled residential fires by job assignment and fire attack tactic. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2020; 30:338-349. [PMID: 31175324 PMCID: PMC7323473 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-019-0145-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Revised: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2019] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
To better understand the absorption of combustion byproducts during firefighting, we performed biological monitoring (breath and urine) on firefighters who responded to controlled residential fires and examined the results by job assignment and fire attack tactic. Urine was analyzed for metabolites of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and breath was analyzed for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) including benzene. Median concentrations of PAH metabolites in urine increased from pre-firefighting to 3-h post firefighting for all job assignments. This change was greatest for firefighters assigned to attack and search with 2.3, 5.6, 3.9, and 1.4-fold median increases in pyrene, phenanthrene, naphthalene, and fluorene metabolites. Median exhaled breath concentrations of benzene increased 2-fold for attack and search firefighters (p < 0.01) and 1.4-fold for outside vent firefighters (p = 0.02). Compared to interior attack, transitional attack resulted in 50% less uptake of pyrene (p = 0.09), 36% less uptake phenanthrene (p = 0.052), and 20% less uptake of fluorene (p < 0.01). Dermal absorption likely contributed to firefighters' exposures in this study. Firefighters' exposures will vary by job assignment and can be reduced by employing a transitional fire attack when feasible.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth W Fent
- Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH, USA.
| | - Christine Toennis
- Division of Applied Research and Technology, NIOSH, CDC, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Deborah Sammons
- Division of Applied Research and Technology, NIOSH, CDC, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Shirley Robertson
- Division of Applied Research and Technology, NIOSH, CDC, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Stephen Bertke
- Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Antonia M Calafat
- Division of Laboratory Services, National Center for Environmental Health, CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Joachim D Pleil
- National Exposure Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - M Ariel Geer Wallace
- National Exposure Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Steve Kerber
- Firefighter Safety Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories, Columbia, MD, USA
| | - Denise Smith
- Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, New York, NY, USA
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-, Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Gavin P Horn
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-, Champaign, IL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Horn GP, Kerber S, Fent KW, Smith DL. Management of Firefighters' Chemical & Cardiovascular Exposure Risks on the Fireground. Int Fire Serv J Leadersh Manag 2020; 14:7-16. [PMID: 35673618 PMCID: PMC9169513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The fire service research community around the world has focused substantial resources on reducing firefighter risk for sudden cardiac events and chemical exposures that may lead to cancer. Research presented here summarizes important lessons learned from a full-scale residential Fire Study that allowed quantification of the risks as well as the effectiveness of interventions to reduce those risks. To address fireground exposure concerns, personal protective equipment (PPE) and administrative controls exist. But, these controls are not always straightforward to apply. Leadership and management concerns with ongoing implementation of these controls are introduced and opportunities for change management are discussed. While research provides a solid basis upon which to institute policy and practice, fireground leadership and management is critical to ensure appropriate implementation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gavin P Horn
- UL Firefighter Safety Research Institute, Columbia, MD and University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute, Urbana-Champaign, IL
| | - Steve Kerber
- UL Firefighter Safety Research Institute, Columbia, MD
| | - Kenneth W Fent
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Denise L Smith
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute, Urbana-Champaign, IL and Skidmore College, First Responder Health and Safety Laboratory, Saratoga Springs, NY
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Fent KW, Mayer A, Bertke S, Kerber S, Smith D, Horn GP. Understanding airborne contaminants produced by different fuel packages during training fires. J Occup Environ Hyg 2019; 16:532-543. [PMID: 31169466 PMCID: PMC8591790 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2019.1617870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Fire training may expose firefighters and instructors to hazardous airborne chemicals that vary by the training fuel. We conducted area and personal air sampling during three instructional scenarios per day involving the burning of two types (designated as alpha and bravo) of oriented strand board (OSB), pallet and straw, or the use of simulated smoke, over a period of 5 days. Twenty-four firefighters and ten instructors participated. Firefighters participated in each scenario once (separated by about 48 hr) and instructors supervised three training exercise per scenarios (completed in 1 day). Personal air samples were analyzed for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and hydrogen cyanide during live-fire scenarios (excluding simulated smoke). Area air samples were analyzed for acid gases, aldehydes, isocyanates, and VOCs for all scenarios. For the live-fire scenarios, median personal air concentrations of benzene and PAHs exceeded applicable short-term exposure limits and were higher among firefighters than instructors. When comparing results by type of fuel, personal air concentrations of benzene and PAHs were higher for bravo OSB compared to other fuels. Median area air concentrations of aldehydes and isocyanates were also highest during the bravo OSB scenario, while pallet and straw produced the highest median concentrations of certain VOCs and acid gases. These results suggest usage of self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) by both instructors and firefighters is essential during training fires to reduce potential inhalation exposure. Efforts should be taken to clean skin and clothing as soon as possible after live-fire training to limit dermal absorption as well.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth W Fent
- a Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies , National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | - Alexander Mayer
- a Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies , National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | - Stephen Bertke
- a Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies , National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | - Steve Kerber
- b Firefighter Safety Research Institute , Underwriters Laboratories , Columbia , Maryland
| | - Denise Smith
- c Health and Human Physiological Sciences Department , Skidmore College , Saratoga Springs , New York
- d Illinois Fire Service Institute , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana-Champaign , Illinois
| | - Gavin P Horn
- d Illinois Fire Service Institute , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana-Champaign , Illinois
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Fent KW, Toennis C, Sammons D, Robertson S, Bertke S, Calafat AM, Pleil JD, Geer Wallace MA, Kerber S, Smith DL, Horn GP. Firefighters' and instructors’ absorption of PAHs and benzene during training exercises. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2019; 222:991-1000. [PMID: 31272797 PMCID: PMC8848677 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2019.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Introduction: Training fires may constitute a major portion of some firefighters’ occupational exposures to smoke. However, the magnitude and composition of those exposures are not well understood and may vary by the type of training scenario and fuels. Objectives: To understand how structure fire training contributes to firefighters’ and instructors’ select chemical exposures, we conducted biological monitoring during exercises involving combustion of pallet and straw and oriented strand board (OSB) or the use of simulated smoke. Methods: Urine was analyzed for metabolites of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and breath was analyzed for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) including benzene. Results: Median concentrations of nearly all PAH metabolites in urine increased from pre-to 3-hr post-training for each scenario and were highest for OSB, followed by pallet and straw, and then simulated smoke. For instructors who supervised three trainings per day, median concentrations increased at each collection. A single day of OSB exercises led to a 30-fold increase in 1-hydroxypyrene for instructors, culminating in a median endof-shift concentration 3.5-fold greater than median levels measured from firefighters in a previous controlledresidential fire study. Breath concentrations of benzene increased 2 to 7-fold immediately after the training exercises (with the exception of simulated smoke training). Exposures were highest for the OSB scenario and instructors accumulated PAHs with repeated daily exercises. Conclusions: Dermal absorption likely contributed to the biological levels as the respiratory route was well protected. Training academies should consider exposure risks as well as instructional objectives when selecting training exercises.
Collapse
|
24
|
Wallace MAG, Pleil JD, Oliver KD, Whitaker DA, Mentese S, Fent KW, Horn GP. Targeted GC-MS analysis of firefighters' exhaled breath: Exploring biomarker response at the individual level. J Occup Environ Hyg 2019; 16:355-366. [PMID: 30932751 PMCID: PMC7027924 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2019.1588973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Biomarker measurements can provide unambiguous evidence of environmental exposures as well as the resultant biological responses. Firefighters have a high rate of occupational cancer incidence, which has been proposed to be linked in part to their increased environmental exposure to byproducts of combustion and contaminants produced during fire responses. In this article, the uptake and elimination of targeted volatile organic compounds were investigated by collecting the exhaled breath of firefighters on sorbent tubes before and after controlled structure burns and analyzing samples using automated thermal desorption-gas chromatography (ATD-GC/MS). Volatile organic compounds exposure was assessed by grouping the data according to firefighting job positions as well as visualizing the data at the level of the individual firefighter to determine which individuals had expected exposure responses. When data were assessed at the group level, benzene concentrations were found to be elevated post-exposure in both fire attack, victim search, and outside ventilation firefighting positions. However, the results of the data analysis at the individual level indicate that certain firefighters may be more susceptible to post-exposure volatile organic compounds increases than others, and this should be considered when assessing the effectiveness of firefighting protective gear. Although this work focuses on firefighting activity, the results can be translated to potential human health and ecological effects from building and forest fires.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Ariel Geer Wallace
- a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Exposure Research Laboratory , Research Triangle Park , North Carolina
| | - Joachim D Pleil
- a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Exposure Research Laboratory , Research Triangle Park , North Carolina
| | - Karen D Oliver
- a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Exposure Research Laboratory , Research Triangle Park , North Carolina
| | - Donald A Whitaker
- a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Exposure Research Laboratory , Research Triangle Park , North Carolina
| | - Sibel Mentese
- b Department of Environmental Engineering , Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University , Merkez/ Çanakkale , Turkey
| | - Kenneth W Fent
- c Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations and Field Studies , National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | - Gavin P Horn
- d Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Champaign , Illinois
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Geer Wallace MA, Pleil JD, Oliver KD, Whitaker DA, Mentese S, Fent KW, Horn GP. Non-targeted GC/MS analysis of exhaled breath samples: Exploring human biomarkers of exogenous exposure and endogenous response from professional firefighting activity. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2019; 82:244-260. [PMID: 30907277 PMCID: PMC8668041 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2019.1587901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
A non-targeted analysis workflow was applied to analyze exhaled breath samples collected from firefighters pre- and post-structural fire suppression. Breath samples from firefighters functioning in attack and search positions were examined for target and non-target compounds in automated thermal desorption-GC/MS (ATD-GC/MS) selected ion monitoring (SIM)/scan mode and reviewed for prominent chemicals. Targeted chemicals included products of combustion such as benzene, toluene, xylenes, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) that serve as a standard assessment of exposure. Sixty unique chemical features representative of exogenous chemicals and endogenous compounds, including single-ring aromatics, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, volatile sulfur-containing compounds, aldehydes, alkanes, and alkenes were identified using the non-targeted analysis workflow. Fifty-seven out of 60 non-targeted features changed by at least 50% from pre- to post-fire suppression activity in at least one subject, and 7 non-targeted features were found to exhibit significantly increased or decreased concentrations for all subjects as a group. This study is important for (1) alerting the firefighter community to potential new exposures, (2) expanding the current targeted list of toxicants, and (3) finding biomarkers of response to firefighting activity as reflected by changes in endogenous compounds. Data demonstrate that there are non-targeted compounds in firefighters' breath that are indicative of environmental exposure despite the use of protective gear, and this information may be further utilized to improve the effectiveness of personal protective equipment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Ariel Geer Wallace
- a Office of Research and Development, National Exposure Research Laboratory , U.S. Environmental Protection Agency , Research Triangle Park , NC , USA
| | - Joachim D Pleil
- a Office of Research and Development, National Exposure Research Laboratory , U.S. Environmental Protection Agency , Research Triangle Park , NC , USA
| | - Karen D Oliver
- a Office of Research and Development, National Exposure Research Laboratory , U.S. Environmental Protection Agency , Research Triangle Park , NC , USA
| | - Donald A Whitaker
- a Office of Research and Development, National Exposure Research Laboratory , U.S. Environmental Protection Agency , Research Triangle Park , NC , USA
| | - Sibel Mentese
- b Department of Environmental Engineering , Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University , Merkez/Çanakkale , Turkey
| | - Kenneth W Fent
- c Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations and Field Studies , National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) , Cincinnati , OH , USA
| | - Gavin P Horn
- d Illinois Fire Service Institute , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Champaign , IL , USA
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Mayer AC, Fent KW, Bertke S, Horn GP, Smith DL, Kerber S, La Guardia MJ. Firefighter hood contamination: Efficiency of laundering to remove PAHs and FRs. J Occup Environ Hyg 2019; 16:129-140. [PMID: 30427284 PMCID: PMC8647047 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2018.1540877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Firefighters are occupationally exposed to products of combustion containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and flame retardants (FRs), potentially contributing to their increased risk for certain cancers. Personal protective equipment (PPE), including firefighter hoods, helps to reduce firefighters' exposure to toxic substances during fire responses by providing a layer of material on which contaminants deposit prior to reaching the firefighters skin. However, over time hoods that retain some contamination may actually contribute to firefighters' systemic dose. We investigated the effectiveness of laundering to reduce or remove contamination on the hoods, specifically PAHs and three classes of FRs: polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), non-PBDE flame retardants (NPBFRs), and organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs). Participants in the study were grouped into crews of 12 firefighters who worked in pairs by job assignment while responding to controlled fires in a single-family residential structure. For each pair of firefighters, one hood was laundered after every scenario and one was not. Bulk samples of the routinely laundered and unlaundered hoods from five pairs of firefighters were collected and analyzed. Residual levels of OPFRs, NPBFRs, and PAHs were lower in the routinely laundered hoods, with total levels of each class of chemicals being 56-81% lower, on average, than the unlaundered hoods. PBDEs, on average, were 43% higher in the laundered hoods, most likely from cross contamination. After this initial testing, four of the five unlaundered exposed hoods were subsequently laundered with other heavily exposed (unlaundered) and unexposed (new) hoods. Post-laundering evaluation of these hoods revealed increased levels of PBDEs, NPBFRs, and OPFRs in both previously exposed and unexposed hoods, indicating cross contamination. For PAHs, there was little evidence of cross contamination and the exposed hoods were significantly less contaminated after laundering (76% reduction; p = 0.011). Further research is needed to understand how residual contamination on hoods could contribute to firefighters' systemic exposures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Kenneth W Fent
- b Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies , National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | - Stephen Bertke
- b Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies , National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | - Gavin P Horn
- c Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana , Illinois
| | - Denise L Smith
- c Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana , Illinois
- d Health and Exercise Sciences Department , Skidmore College , Saratoga Springs , New York
| | - Steve Kerber
- e Firefighter Safety Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories , Northbrook , Illinois
| | - Mark J La Guardia
- f Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William & Mary , Williamsburg , Virginia
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Gainey SJ, Horn GP, Towers AE, Oelschlager ML, Tir VL, Drnevich J, Fent KW, Kerber S, Smith DL, Freund GG. Exposure to a firefighting overhaul environment without respiratory protection increases immune dysregulation and lung disease risk. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0201830. [PMID: 30130361 PMCID: PMC6103500 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0201830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Firefighting activities appear to increase the risk of acute and chronic lung disease, including malignancy. While self-contained breathing apparatuses (SCBA) mitigate exposures to inhalable asphyxiates and carcinogens, firefighters frequently remove SCBA during overhaul when the firegrounds appear clear of visible smoke. Using a mouse model of overhaul without airway protection, the impact of fireground environment exposure on lung gene expression was assessed to identify transcripts potentially critical to firefighter-related chronic pulmonary illnesses. Lung tissue was collected 2 hrs post-overhaul and evaluated via whole genome transcriptomics by RNA-seq. Although gas metering showed that the fireground overhaul levels of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen cyanine (HCN), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and oxygen (O2) were within NIOSH ceiling recommendations, 3852 lung genes were differentially expressed when mice exposed to overhaul were compared to mice on the fireground but outside the overhaul environment. Importantly, overhaul exposure was associated with an up/down-regulation of 86 genes with a fold change of 1.5 or greater (p<0.5) including the immunomodulatory-linked genes S100a8 and Tnfsf9 (downregulation) and the cancer-linked genes, Capn11 and Rorc (upregulation). Taken together these findings indicate that, without respiratory protection, exposure to the fireground overhaul environment is associated with transcriptional changes impacting proteins potentially related to inflammation-associated lung disease and cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J. Gainey
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Gavin P. Horn
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, Champaign, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Albert E. Towers
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Maci L. Oelschlager
- Department of Pathology, Program in Integrative Immunology and Behavior, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Vincent L. Tir
- Department of Pathology, Program in Integrative Immunology and Behavior, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Jenny Drnevich
- Roy J. Carver Biotechnology Center, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Kenneth W. Fent
- Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Stephen Kerber
- Director, UL Firefighter Safety Research Institute, Columbia, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Denise L. Smith
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, Champaign, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Health and Human Physiological Sciences, Skidmore College, Saratoga Spring, New York, United States of America
| | - Gregory G. Freund
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, Program in Integrative Immunology and Behavior, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Fent KW, Evans DE, Babik K, Striley C, Bertke S, Kerber S, Smith D, Horn GP. Airborne contaminants during controlled residential fires. J Occup Environ Hyg 2018; 15:399-412. [PMID: 29494297 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2018.1445260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we characterize the area and personal air concentrations of combustion byproducts produced during controlled residential fires with furnishings common in 21st century single family structures. Area air measurements were collected from the structure during active fire and overhaul (post suppression) and on the fireground where personnel were operating without any respiratory protection. Personal air measurements were collected from firefighters assigned to fire attack, victim search, overhaul, outside ventilation, and command/pump operator positions. Two different fire attack tactics were conducted for the fires (6 interior and 6 transitional) and exposures were compared between the tactics. For each of the 12 fires, firefighters were paired up to conduct each job assignment, except for overhaul that was conducted by 4 firefighters. Sampled compounds included polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs, e.g., benzene), hydrogen cyanide (HCN), and particulate (area air sampling only). Median personal air concentrations for the attack and search firefighters were generally well above applicable short-term occupational exposure limits, with the exception of HCN measured from search firefighters. Area air concentrations of all measured compounds decreased after suppression. Personal air concentrations of total PAHs and benzene measured from some overhaul firefighters exceeded exposure limits. Median personal air concentrations of HCN (16,300 ppb) exceeded the exposure limit for outside vent firefighters, with maximum levels (72,900 ppb) higher than the immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) level. Median air concentrations on the fireground (including particle count) were above background levels and highest when collected downwind of the structure and when ground-level smoke was the heaviest. No statistically significant differences in personal air concentrations were found between the 2 attack tactics. The results underscore the importance of wearing self-contained breathing apparatus when conducting overhaul or outside ventilation activities. Firefighters should also try to establish command upwind of the structure fire, and if this cannot be done, respiratory protection should be considered.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth W Fent
- a Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | - Douglas E Evans
- b Division of Applied Research and Technology, NIOSH , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | - Kelsey Babik
- a Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | - Cynthia Striley
- b Division of Applied Research and Technology, NIOSH , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | - Stephen Bertke
- a Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | - Steve Kerber
- c Firefighter Safety Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories , Columbia , Maryland
| | - Denise Smith
- d Health and Exercise Sciences Department , Skidmore College , Saratoga Springs , New York
- e Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana-Champaign , Illinois
| | - Gavin P Horn
- e Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana-Champaign , Illinois
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Horn GP, Kesler RM, Kerber S, Fent KW, Schroeder TJ, Scott WS, Fehling PC, Fernhall B, Smith DL. Thermal response to firefighting activities in residential structure fires: impact of job assignment and suppression tactic. Ergonomics 2018; 61:404-419. [PMID: 28737481 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2017.1355072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 07/07/2017] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Firefighters' thermal burden is generally attributed to high heat loads from the fire and metabolic heat generation, which may vary between job assignments and suppression tactic employed. Utilising a full-sized residential structure, firefighters were deployed in six job assignments utilising two attack tactics (1. Water applied from the interior, or 2. Exterior water application before transitioning to the interior). Environmental temperatures decreased after water application, but more rapidly with transitional attack. Local ambient temperatures for inside operation firefighters were higher than other positions (average ~10-30 °C). Rapid elevations in skin temperature were found for all job assignments other than outside command. Neck skin temperatures for inside attack firefighters were ~0.5 °C lower when the transitional tactic was employed. Significantly higher core temperatures were measured for the outside ventilation and overhaul positions than the inside positions (~0.6-0.9 °C). Firefighters working at all fireground positions must be monitored and relieved based on intensity and duration. Practitioner Summary: Testing was done to characterise the thermal burden experienced by firefighters in different job assignments who responded to controlled residential fires (with typical furnishings) using two tactics. Ambient, skin and core temperatures varied based on job assignment and tactic employed, with rapid elevations in core temperature in many roles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gavin P Horn
- a Illinois Fire Service Institute , University of Illinois , Urbana , IL , USA
| | - Richard M Kesler
- a Illinois Fire Service Institute , University of Illinois , Urbana , IL , USA
| | - Steve Kerber
- b UL Firefighter Safety Research Institute , Columbia , MD , USA
| | - Kenneth W Fent
- c National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health , Cincinnati , OH , USA
| | - Tad J Schroeder
- a Illinois Fire Service Institute , University of Illinois , Urbana , IL , USA
| | | | | | - Bo Fernhall
- f Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition , University of Illinois at Chicago , Chicago , IL , USA
| | - Denise L Smith
- a Illinois Fire Service Institute , University of Illinois , Urbana , IL , USA
- e Skidmore College , Saratoga Springs , NY , USA
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Fent KW, Alexander B, Roberts J, Robertson S, Toennis C, Sammons D, Bertke S, Kerber S, Smith D, Horn G. Contamination of firefighter personal protective equipment and skin and the effectiveness of decontamination procedures. J Occup Environ Hyg 2017; 14:801-814. [PMID: 28636458 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2017.1334904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Firefighters' skin may be exposed to chemicals via permeation/penetration of combustion byproducts through or around personal protective equipment (PPE) or from the cross-transfer of contaminants on PPE to the skin. Additionally, volatile contaminants can evaporate from PPE following a response and be inhaled by firefighters. Using polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as respective markers for non-volatile and volatile substances, we investigated the contamination of firefighters' turnout gear and skin following controlled residential fire responses. Participants were grouped into three crews of twelve firefighters. Each crew was deployed to a fire scenario (one per day, four total) and then paired up to complete six fireground job assignments. Wipe sampling of the exterior of the turnout gear was conducted pre- and post-fire. Wipe samples were also collected from a subset of the gear after field decontamination. VOCs off-gassing from gear were also measured pre-fire, post-fire, and post-decon. Wipe sampling of the firefighters' hands and neck was conducted pre- and post-fire. Additional wipes were collected after cleaning neck skin. PAH levels on turnout gear increased after each response and were greatest for gear worn by firefighters assigned to fire attack and to search and rescue activities. Field decontamination using dish soap, water, and scrubbing was able to reduce PAH contamination on turnout jackets by a median of 85%. Off-gassing VOC levels increased post-fire and then decreased 17-36 min later regardless of whether field decontamination was performed. Median post-fire PAH levels on the neck were near or below the limit of detection (< 24 micrograms per square meter [µg/m2]) for all positions. For firefighters assigned to attack, search, and outside ventilation, the 75th percentile values on the neck were 152, 71.7, and 39.3 µg/m2, respectively. Firefighters assigned to attack and search had higher post-fire median hand contamination (135 and 226 µg/m2, respectively) than other positions (< 10.5 µg/m2). Cleansing wipes were able to reduce PAH contamination on neck skin by a median of 54%.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth W Fent
- a Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies , National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | - Barbara Alexander
- b Division of Applied Research and Technology (NIOSH) , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | - Jennifer Roberts
- b Division of Applied Research and Technology (NIOSH) , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | - Shirley Robertson
- b Division of Applied Research and Technology (NIOSH) , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | - Christine Toennis
- b Division of Applied Research and Technology (NIOSH) , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | - Deborah Sammons
- b Division of Applied Research and Technology (NIOSH) , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | - Stephen Bertke
- a Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies , National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | - Steve Kerber
- c Firefighter Safety Research Institute , Underwriters Laboratories , Northbrook , Illinois
| | - Denise Smith
- d Health and Exercise Sciences Department , Skidmore College , Saratoga Springs , New York
- e Illinois Fire Service Institute , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Champaign , Illinois
| | - Gavin Horn
- e Illinois Fire Service Institute , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Champaign , Illinois
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Geer Wallace MA, Pleil JD, Mentese S, Oliver KD, Whitaker DA, Fent KW. Calibration and performance of synchronous SIM/scan mode for simultaneous targeted and discovery (non-targeted) analysis of exhaled breath samples from firefighters. J Chromatogr A 2017; 1516:114-124. [PMID: 28838652 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2017.07.082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2017] [Revised: 07/26/2017] [Accepted: 07/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Traditionally, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis has used a targeted approach called selected ion monitoring (SIM) to quantify specific compounds that may have adverse health effects. Due to method limitations and the constraints of preparing duplicate samples, the information that could be obtained from separately collecting the full scan chromatogram of the sample has often been sacrificed. However, the hybrid technique called synchronous SIM/scan mode alternates between the two acquisition modes, maintaining the accuracy and sensitivity of SIM for targeted analysis while also providing the full scan chromatogram for discovery of non-target compounds. This technology was assessed using calibration data and real-world breath samples from a joint EPA/NIOSH collaboration that investigated the safety of firefighters' protective gear during controlled structure burns. Collecting field samples is costly and must be performed strategically to ensure that time points and replicates are accurate and representative of the intended population. This is difficult to accomplish with firefighters who are working under volatile conditions. The synchronous SIM/scan method decreases the number of field samples that need to be collected by half and reduces error in trying to recreate time points since a breath sample from a single sorbent tube can be used to collect both the SIM and scan data simultaneously. As a practical demonstration of the method, we investigate thirty-six firefighter breath samples, document organic compounds of interest, and identify additional non-target compounds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Ariel Geer Wallace
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Joachim D Pleil
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA.
| | - Sibel Mentese
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Merkez, Çanakkale, Turkey(1)
| | - Karen D Oliver
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Donald A Whitaker
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Kenneth W Fent
- Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Cincinnati, OH, USA
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Pinkerton LE, Yiin JH, Daniels RD, Fent KW. Response to Goodman et al. Am J Ind Med 2017; 60:223-225. [PMID: 28079281 DOI: 10.1002/ajim.22681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lynne E. Pinkerton
- Industrywide Studies Branch, Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; Cincinnati Ohio
| | - James H. Yiin
- Industrywide Studies Branch, Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; Cincinnati Ohio
| | - Robert D. Daniels
- Industrywide Studies Branch, Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; Cincinnati Ohio
| | - Kenneth W. Fent
- Industrywide Studies Branch, Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; Cincinnati Ohio
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Pinkerton LE, Yiin JH, Daniels RD, Fent KW. Mortality among workers exposed to toluene diisocyanate in the US polyurethane foam industry: Update and exposure-response analyses. Am J Ind Med 2016; 59:630-43. [PMID: 27346061 DOI: 10.1002/ajim.22622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mortality among 4,545 toluene diisocyante (TDI)-exposed workers was updated through 2011. The primary outcome of interest was lung cancer. METHODS Life table analyses, including internal analyses by exposure duration and cumulative TDI exposure, were conducted. RESULTS Compared with the US population, all cause and all cancer mortality was increased. Lung cancer mortality was increased but was not associated with exposure duration or cumulative TDI exposure. In post hoc analyses, lung cancer mortality was associated with employment duration in finishing jobs, but not in finishing jobs involving cutting polyurethane foam. CONCLUSIONS Dermal exposure, in contrast to inhalational exposure, to TDI is expected to be greater in finishing jobs and may play a role in the observed increase in lung cancer mortality. Limitations include the lack of smoking data, uncertainty in the exposure estimates, and exposure estimates that reflected inhalational exposure only. Am. J. Ind. Med. 59:630-643, 2016. Published 2016. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lynne E. Pinkerton
- Industrywide Studies Branch, Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; Cincinnati Ohio
| | - James H. Yiin
- Industrywide Studies Branch, Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; Cincinnati Ohio
| | - Robert D. Daniels
- Industrywide Studies Branch, Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; Cincinnati Ohio
| | - Kenneth W. Fent
- Industrywide Studies Branch, Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; Cincinnati Ohio
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Abstract
Vehicle fires are a common occurrence, yet few studies have reported exposures associated with burning vehicles. This article presents an assessment of firefighters' potential for ultrafine and respirable particle exposure during vehicle fire suppression training. Fires were initiated within the engine compartment and passenger cabins of three salvaged vehicles, with subsequent water suppression by fire crews. Firefighter exposures were monitored with an array of direct reading particle and air quality instruments. A flexible metallic duct and blower drew contaminants to the instrument array, positioned at a safe distance from the burning vehicles, with the duct inlet positioned at the nozzle operator's shoulder. The instruments measured the particle number, active surface area, respirable particle mass, photoelectric response, aerodynamic particle size distributions, and air quality parameters. Although vehicle fires were suppressed quickly (<10 minutes), firefighters may be exposed to short duration, high particle concentration episodes during fire suppression, which are orders of magnitude greater than the ambient background concentration. A maximum transient particle concentration of 1.21 × 10(7) particles per cm(3), 170 mg m(-3) respirable particle mass, 4700 μm(2) cm(-3) active surface area and 1400 (arbitrary units) in photoelectric response were attained throughout the series of six fires. Expressed as fifteen minute time-weighted averages, engine compartment fires averaged 5.4 × 10(4) particles per cm(3), 0.36 mg m(-3) respirable particle mass, 92 μm(2) cm(-3) active particle surface area and 29 (arbitrary units) in photoelectric response. Similarly, passenger cabin fires averaged 2.04 × 10(5) particles per cm(3), 2.7 mg m(-3) respirable particle mass, 320 μm(2) cm(-3) active particle surface area, and 34 (arbitrary units) in photoelectric response. Passenger cabin fires were a greater potential source of exposure than engine compartment fires. The wind direction and the relative position of the fire crew to the stationary burning vehicle played a primary role in fire crews' potential for exposure. We recommend that firefighters wear self-contained breathing apparatus during all phases of the vehicle fire response to significantly reduce their potential for particulate, vapor, and gaseous exposures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Douglas E Evans
- Chemical Exposure and Monitoring Branch, Division of Applied Research and Technology, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1090 Tusculum Avenue, MS R-7, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Fent KW, Evans DE, Booher D, Pleil JD, Stiegel MA, Horn GP, Dalton J. Volatile Organic Compounds Off-gassing from Firefighters' Personal Protective Equipment Ensembles after Use. J Occup Environ Hyg 2015; 12:404-14. [PMID: 25751596 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2015.1025135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Firefighters' personal protective equipment (PPE) ensembles will become contaminated with various compounds during firefighting. Some of these compounds will off-gas following a response, which could result in inhalation exposure. This study was conducted to determine the magnitude and composition of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) generated during controlled structure burns that subsequently off-gassed from the firefighters' PPE, and were systemically absorbed and exhaled in firefighters' breath. Three crews of five firefighters performed entry, suppression, and overhaul during a controlled burn. We used evacuated canisters to sample air inside the burn structure during active fire and overhaul. After each burn, we placed PPE from two firefighters inside clean enclosures and sampled the air using evacuated canisters over 15 min. Firefighters' exhaled breath was collected ∼1 hr before and 4-14 min after each burn. Using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, the evacuated canister samples were analyzed for 64 VOCs and the exhaled breath samples were analyzed for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene, and styrene (BTEXS). Fourteen of the same VOCs were detected off-gassing from PPE in 50% or more of the samples. Compared to background levels, we measured >5 fold increases in mean off-gas concentrations of styrene, benzene, 1,4-dichlorobenzene, acetone, and cyclohexane. Several of the compounds detected off-gassing from PPE were also measured at concentrations above background during active fire and overhaul, including benzene, propene, and styrene. The overhaul and off-gas air concentrations were well below applicable short-term occupational exposure limits. Compared to pre-burn levels, we measured >2 fold increases in mean breath concentrations of benzene, toluene, and styrene after the burns. Air concentrations of BTEXS measured off-gassing from firefighters' used PPE and in firefighters' post-burn exhaled breath were significantly correlated. The firefighters may have absorbed BTEXS through both the dermal route (during firefighting) and inhalation route (from off-gassing PPE after firefighting). Firefighters should be made aware of the potential for inhalation exposure when doffing and traveling in confined vehicles with contaminated PPE and take measures to minimize this exposure pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth W Fent
- a Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies , National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Pleil JD, Stiegel MA, Fent KW. Exploratory breath analyses for assessing toxic dermal exposures of firefighters during suppression of structural burns. J Breath Res 2014; 8:037107. [DOI: 10.1088/1752-7155/8/3/037107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
|
37
|
Fent KW, Eisenberg J, Snawder J, Sammons D, Pleil JD, Stiegel MA, Mueller C, Horn GP, Dalton J. Systemic exposure to PAHs and benzene in firefighters suppressing controlled structure fires. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 58:830-45. [PMID: 24906357 PMCID: PMC4124999 DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/meu036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Turnout gear provides protection against dermal exposure to contaminants during firefighting; however, the level of protection is unknown. We explored the dermal contribution to the systemic dose of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and other aromatic hydrocarbons in firefighters during suppression and overhaul of controlled structure burns. The study was organized into two rounds, three controlled burns per round, and five firefighters per burn. The firefighters wore new or laundered turnout gear tested before each burn to ensure lack of PAH contamination. To ensure that any increase in systemic PAH levels after the burn was the result of dermal rather than inhalation exposure, the firefighters did not remove their self-contained breathing apparatus until overhaul was completed and they were >30 m upwind from the burn structure. Specimens were collected before and at intervals after the burn for biomarker analysis. Urine was analyzed for phenanthrene equivalents using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and a benzene metabolite (s-phenylmercapturic acid) using liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry; both were adjusted by creatinine. Exhaled breath collected on thermal desorption tubes was analyzed for PAHs and other aromatic hydrocarbons using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. We collected personal air samples during the burn and skin wipe samples (corn oil medium) on several body sites before and after the burn. The air and wipe samples were analyzed for PAHs using a liquid chromatography with photodiode array detection. We explored possible changes in external exposures or biomarkers over time and the relationships between these variables using non-parametric sign tests and Spearman tests, respectively. We found significantly elevated (P < 0.05) post-exposure breath concentrations of benzene compared with pre-exposure concentrations for both rounds. We also found significantly elevated post-exposure levels of PAHs on the neck compared with pre-exposure levels for round 1. We found statistically significant positive correlations between external exposures (i.e. personal air concentrations of PAHs) and biomarkers (i.e. change in urinary PAH metabolite levels in round 1 and change in breath concentrations of benzene in round 2). The results suggest that firefighters wearing full protective ensembles absorbed combustion products into their bodies. The PAHs most likely entered firefighters' bodies through their skin, with the neck being the primary site of exposure and absorption due to the lower level of dermal protection afforded by hoods. Aromatic hydrocarbons could have been absorbed dermally during firefighting or inhaled during the doffing of gear that was off-gassing contaminants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth W Fent
- 1.Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 4676 Columbia Parkway, Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Judith Eisenberg
- 1.Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 4676 Columbia Parkway, Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - John Snawder
- 2.Division of Applied Research and Technology, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 4676 Columbia Parkway, Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Deborah Sammons
- 2.Division of Applied Research and Technology, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 4676 Columbia Parkway, Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Joachim D Pleil
- 3.Human Exposure and Atmospheric Sciences Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Matthew A Stiegel
- 4.Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education/U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Research Fellow, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Charles Mueller
- 1.Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 4676 Columbia Parkway, Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Gavin P Horn
- 5.Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois-Urbana/Champaign, 11 Gerty Drive, Champaign, IL 61820, USA
| | - James Dalton
- 6.Research and Development Section, Training Division, Chicago Fire Department, 558 West DeKoven Street, Chicago, IL 60607, USA
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Abstract
Automatic dispensing machines (ADMs) used in pharmacies concentrate and dispense large volumes of pharmaceuticals, including uncoated tablets that can shed dust. We evaluated 43 employees' exposures to pharmaceutical dust at three pharmacies where ADMs were used. We used an optical particle counter to identify tasks that generated pharmaceutical dust. We collected 72 inhalable dust air samples in or near the employees' breathing zones. In addition to gravimetric analysis, our contract laboratory used internal methods involving liquid chromatography to analyze these samples for active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and/or lactose, an inactive filler in tablets. We had to choose samples for these additional analyses because many methods used different extraction solvents. We selected 57 samples for analysis of lactose. We used real-time particle monitoring results, observations, and information from employees on the dustiness of pharmaceuticals to select 28 samples (including 13 samples that were analyzed for lactose) for analysis of specific APIs. Pharmaceutical dust was generated during a variety of tasks like emptying and refilling of ADM canisters. Using compressed air to clean canisters and manual count machines produced the overall highest peak number concentrations (19,000-580,000 particles/L) of smallest particles (count median aerodynamic diameter ≤ 2 μm). Employees who refilled, cleaned, or repaired ADM canisters, or hand filled prescriptions were exposed to higher median air concentrations of lactose (5.0-12 μg/m(3)) than employees who did other jobs (0.04-1.3 μg/m(3)), such as administrative/office work, labeling/packaging, and verifying prescriptions. We detected 10 APIs in air, including lisinopril, a drug prescribed for high blood pressure, levothyroxine, a drug prescribed for hypothyroidism, and methotrexate, a hazardous drug prescribed for cancer and other disorders. Three air concentrations of lisinopril (1.8-2.7 μg/m(3)) exceeded the lower bound of the manufacturer's hazard control band (1-10 μg/m(3)). All other API air concentrations were below applicable occupational exposure limits. Our findings indicate that some pharmacy employees are exposed to multiple APIs and that measures are needed to control those exposures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth W Fent
- a Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies , National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) , Cincinnati , Ohio
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth W Fent
- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Reeb-Whitaker C, Whittaker SG, Ceballos DM, Weiland EC, Flack SL, Fent KW, Thomasen JM, Trelles Gaines LG, Nylander-French LA. Airborne isocyanate exposures in the collision repair industry and a comparison to occupational exposure limits. J Occup Environ Hyg 2012; 9:329-339. [PMID: 22500941 PMCID: PMC4075771 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2012.672871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Isocyanate exposure was evaluated in 33 spray painters from 25 Washington State autobody shops. Personal breathing zone samples (n = 228) were analyzed for isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI) monomer, 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) monomer, IPDI polyisocyanate, and three polyisocyanate forms of HDI. The objective was to describe exposures to isocyanates while spray painting, compare them with short-term exposure limits (STELs), and describe the isocyanate composition in the samples. The composition of polyisocyanates (IPDI and HDI) in the samples varied greatly, with maximum amounts ranging from up to 58% for HDI biuret to 96% for HDI isocyanurate. There was a significant inverse relationship between the percentage composition of HDI isocyanurate to IPDI and to HDI uretdione. Two 15-min STELs were compared: (1) Oregon's Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OR-OSHA) STEL of 1000 μg/m(3) for HDI polyisocyanate, and (2) the United Kingdom's Health and Safety Executive (UK-HSE) STEL of 70 μg NCO/m(3) for all isocyanates. Eighty percent of samples containing HDI polyisocyanate exceeded the OR-OSHA STEL while 98% of samples exceeded the UK-HSE STEL. The majority of painters (67%) wore half-face air-purifying respirators while spray painting. Using the OR-OSHA and the UK-HSE STELs as benchmarks, 21% and 67% of painters, respectively, had at least one exposure that exceeded the respirator's OSHA-assigned protection factor. A critical review of the STELs revealed the following limitations: (1) the OR-OSHA STEL does not include all polyisocyanates, and (2) the UK-HSE STEL is derived from monomeric isocyanates, whereas the species present in typical spray coatings are polyisocyanates. In conclusion, the variable mixtures of isocyanates used by autobody painters suggest that an occupational exposure limit is required that includes all polyisocyanates. Despite the limitations of the STELs, we determined that a respirator with an assigned protection factor of 25 or greater is required to protect against isocyanate exposures during spray painting. Consequently, half-face air-purifying respirators, which are most commonly used and have an assigned protection factor of 10, do not afford adequate respiratory protection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn Reeb-Whitaker
- Safety & Health Assessment & Research for Prevention Program, Washington State Department of Labor & Industries, Tumwater, Washington, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Thomasen JM, Fent KW, Nylander-French LA. Development of a sampling patch to measure dermal exposures to monomeric and polymeric 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate: a pilot study. J Occup Environ Hyg 2011; 8:709-717. [PMID: 22074266 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2011.626744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate a patch sampler to monitor dermal exposures to monomeric and polymeric 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) in the automotive refinishing industry. Different patch materials were used to construct the patches, and patches impregnated with a derivatizing solution were compared with those that were not impregnated. We observed that impregnated felt patches measured significantly more HDI monomer (p = 0.04) than non-impregnated patches in a controlled experiment. Both impregnated and non-impregnated patches were compared with the tape-strip method by monitoring three spray painters' dermal exposure to monomeric and polymeric HDI. Isocyanurate was the predominant species measured by all three sampler types with detectable levels in >86% of samples. Overall, tape-strips of exposed skin measured lower levels of monomeric and polymeric HDI than impregnated patch samplers at the same sampling site on the skin. Unlike tape-strips, impregnated patches are not as prone to evaporative or reactive losses or losses due to rapid penetration into the skin. Further investigations are warranted to evaluate these and other methods to measure dermal exposure to workers under occupational conditions to better understand the relationship between dermal exposure and internal dose.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer M Thomasen
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7431, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Ceballos DM, Fent KW, Whittaker SG, Gaines LGT, Thomasen JM, Flack SL, Nylander-French LA, Yost MG, Reeb-Whitaker CK. Survey of dermal protection in Washington State collision repair industry. J Occup Environ Hyg 2011; 8:551-560. [PMID: 21830873 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2011.602623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Substantial exposure to isocyanates may occur during spray painting in autobody shops, yet information is lacking on the efficacy of the protective clothing used during spray painting. We investigated the personal and workplace factors associated with painters' dermal protection use during a large-scale exposure assessment study. Survey data indicated that 69% of painters always used gloves, with latex gloves (47%) and nitrile gloves (34%) used most frequently. Among latex glove users, 53% used thin latex (0.05-0.13 mm), 6% used medium latex (0.15-0.20 mm), and 12% used thick latex (> 0.20 mm). Among nitrile glove users, 27% used thin nitrile and 45% used medium nitrile. Sixty-three percent of painters always used coveralls, 44% preferring one particular brand. Although overspray presents an opportunity for dermal exposure to the neck and face, only 19% of painters protected these areas with personal protective equipment. Painters who always used coveralls were more likely to use gloves (odds ratio = 7.9, p = 0.061). Painters who reported ever having smoked cigarettes used gloves (p = 0.05) and coveralls (p = 0.04) more frequently. Painters who sprayed more than 34 clear coat jobs per month used coveralls most frequently (p = 0.038). Exact logistic regressions along with random sample calculations indicated that the survey results were independent of the shops. Because of the small sample size in this study, future research is warranted to corroborate these results. Studying the effectiveness of gloves and coveralls against polyurethane paints and understanding the underlying motivators and preferences for painters and business owners is needed for the development of best practices for the selection and use of dermal protection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Diana M Ceballos
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Flack SL, Fent KW, Gaines LGT, Thomasen JM, Whittaker SG, Ball LM, Nylander-French LA. Hemoglobin adducts in workers exposed to 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate. Biomarkers 2011; 16:261-70. [PMID: 21506697 DOI: 10.3109/1354750x.2010.549242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the utility of 1,6-hexamethylene diamine (HDA) hemoglobin adducts as biomarkers of exposure to 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) monomer. Blood samples from 15 spray painters applying HDI-containing paint were analyzed for hemoglobin HDA (HDA-Hb) and N-acetyl-1,6-hexamethylene diamine (monoacetyl-HDA-Hb) by GC-MS. HDA-Hb was detected in the majority of workers (≤1.2-37 ng/g Hb), whereas monoacetyl-HDA-Hb was detected in one worker (0.06 ng/g Hb). The stronger, positive association between HDA-Hb and cumulative HDI exposure (r(2) = 0.3, p < 0.06) than same day exposure (p ≥ 0.13) indicates long-term elimination kinetics for HDA-Hb adducts. This association demonstrates the suitability of HDA-Hb adducts for further validation as a biomarker of HDI exposure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sheila L Flack
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Thomasen JM, Fent KW, Reeb-Whitaker C, Whittaker SG, Nylander-French LA. Field comparison of air sampling methods for monomeric and polymeric 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate. J Occup Environ Hyg 2011; 8:161-178. [PMID: 21347958 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2011.555711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
This study was to critically compared 13 different air samplers for their ability to monitor air exposures to monomeric and polymeric 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) in the automotive refinishing industry. Using both fast- and slow-drying clearcoat, we tested the following types of samplers: single- and dual-stage 37-mm polypropylene (PP) and polystyrene (PS) samplers (open- and closed-face), IOM (with plastic and stainless steel inserts), OSHA42, IsoChek, and WA-DOSH samplers. Midget impingers with frit were used as reference samplers. We observed the PP, PS, and IOM samplers to measure greater levels of HDI monomer and biuret when a fast-drying clearcoat was applied compared with a slow-drying clearcoat. When a slow-drying clearcoat was applied, the open-face PP and PS samplers measured significantly more monomeric and polymeric HDI (2-fold; p < 0.003) than the closed-face PP and PS samplers. We determined that significantly more monomeric and polymeric HDI were measured by impingers (1.3-1.9-fold) compared with single-stage PP/PS (N = 59), dual-stage PP/PS (N = 59), or IOM (N = 24) samplers. However, when stratified by cassette characteristics, the open-face single-stage PP and PS samplers performed equally to the impingers for HDI monomer when a fast-drying clearcoat was applied, and for all analytes when a slow-drying clearcoat was applied. Significantly higher HDI monomer concentrations (1.2-3.1-fold; p = 0.001) were measured with OSHA42 compared with the impinger. The IsoChek did not detect HDI monomer, and of the three samplers analyzed by laboratories other than UNC (i.e., OSHA42, IsoChek, and WA-DOSH), the WA-DOSH was in the best agreement with the impingers. The influence of clearcoat drying time on the sampler's ability to measure monomeric and polymeric HDI emphasizes the importance of the speciation of diisocyanates in chemical analysis and the careful consideration for the selection of the air sampler to be used when measuring exposures during automotive spray painting.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer M Thomasen
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
45
|
Fent KW, Evans DE. Assessing the risk to firefighters from chemical vapors and gases during vehicle fire suppression. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 13:536-43. [DOI: 10.1039/c0em00591f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
46
|
Gaines LGT, Fent KW, Flack SL, Thomasen JM, Whittaker SG, Nylander-French LA. Factors affecting variability in the urinary biomarker 1,6-hexamethylene diamine in workers exposed to 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 13:119-27. [PMID: 20978689 DOI: 10.1039/c0em00122h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Although urinary 1,6-hexamethylene diamine (HDA) is a useful biomarker of exposure to 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI), a large degree of unexplained intra- and inter-individual variability exists between estimated HDI exposure and urine HDA levels. We investigated the effect of individual and workplace factors on urine HDA levels using quantitative dermal and inhalation exposure data derived from a survey of automotive spray painters exposed to HDI. Painters' dermal and breathing-zone HDI-exposures were monitored over an entire workday for up to three separate workdays, spaced approximately one month apart. One urine sample was collected before the start of work with HDI-containing paints, and multiple samples were collected throughout the workday. Using mixed effects multiple linear regression modeling, coverall use resulted in significantly lower HDA levels (p = 0.12), and weekday contributed to significant variability in HDA levels (p = 0.056). We also investigated differences in urine HDA levels stratified by dichotomous and classification covariates using analysis of variance. Use of coveralls (p = 0.05), respirator type worn (p = 0.06), smoker status (p = 0.12), paint-booth type (p = 0.02), and more than one painter at the shop (p = 0.10) were all found to significantly affect urine HDA levels adjusted for creatinine concentration. Coverall use remained significant (p = 0.10), even after adjusting for respirator type. These results indicate that the variation in urine HDA level is mainly due to workplace factors and that appropriate dermal and inhalation protection is required to prevent HDI exposure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Linda G T Gaines
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, The University of North Carolina, CB #7431, Rosenau Hall, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7431, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
Fent KW. Evaluation of chemical hazards at a criminal investigation section of a police department. Case studies. J Occup Environ Hyg 2010; 7:D73-D78. [PMID: 20737348 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2010.509843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth W Fent
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Gaines LGT, Fent KW, Flack SL, Thomasen JM, Ball LM, Richardson DB, Ding K, Whittaker SG, Nylander-French LA. Urine 1,6-hexamethylene diamine (HDA) levels among workers exposed to 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 54:678-91. [PMID: 20530123 DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/meq041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Urinary 1,6-hexamethylene diamine (HDA) may serve as a biomarker for systemic exposure to 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) in occupationally exposed populations. However, the quantitative relationships between dermal and inhalation exposure to HDI and urine HDA levels have not been established. We measured acid-hydrolyzed urine HDA levels along with dermal and breathing-zone levels of HDI in 48 automotive spray painters. These measurements were conducted over the course of an entire workday for up to three separate workdays that were spaced approximately 1 month apart. One urine sample was collected before the start of work with HDI-containing paints and subsequent samples were collected during the workday. HDA levels varied throughout the day and ranged from nondetectable to 65.9 microg l(-1) with a geometric mean and geometric standard deviation of 0.10 microg l(-1) +/- 6.68. Dermal exposure and inhalation exposure levels, adjusted for the type of respirator worn, were both significant predictors of urine HDA levels in the linear mixed models. Creatinine was a significant covariate when used as an independent variable along with dermal and respirator-adjusted inhalation exposure. Consequently, exposure assessment models must account for the water content of a urine sample. These findings indicate that HDA exhibits a biphasic elimination pattern, with a half-life of 2.9 h for the fast elimination phase. Our results also indicate that urine HDA level is significantly associated with systemic HDI exposure through both the skin and the lungs. We conclude that urinary HDA may be used as a biomarker of exposure to HDI, but biological monitoring should be tailored to reliably capture the intermittent exposure pattern typical in this industry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Linda G T Gaines
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 27599, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Gaines LGT, Fent KW, Flack SL, Thomasen JM, Ball LM, Zhou H, Whittaker SG, Nylander-French LA. Effect of creatinine and specific gravity normalization on urinary biomarker 1,6-hexamethylene diamine. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 12:591-9. [PMID: 20445846 DOI: 10.1039/b921073c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Urine amine levels used as biomarkers of diisocyanate exposure have usually been normalized with creatinine concentration. The suitability of using creatinine concentration or specific gravity for these biomarkers in exposure assessment has not been established. We investigated the effect of creatinine concentration and specific gravity on urine 1,6-hexamethylene diamine (HDA) levels in multiple mixed linear regression models using quantitative dermal and inhalation exposure data derived from a survey of automotive spray painters occupationally exposed to 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI). Painters' dermal and breathing-zone HDI exposure were monitored for an entire workday for up to three workdays spaced approximately one month apart. One urine sample was collected before the start of work with HDI-containing paints, and multiple samples were collected throughout the workday. Both creatinine concentration and specific gravity were highly significant predictors (p < 0.0001) of urine HDA levels. When these two were used together in the same model, creatinine remained highly significant (p < 0.0001), but specific gravity decreased in significance (p-values 0.10-0.17). We used different individual factors to determine which affected creatinine and specific gravity. Urine collection time was a highly significant predictor of specific gravity (p = 0.003) and creatinine concentration (p = 0.001). Smoker status was significant (p = 0.026) in the creatinine model. The findings indicate that creatinine concentration is more appropriate to account for urine water content than specific gravity and that creatinine is best used as an independent variable in HDI exposure assessment models instead of traditional urine normalization with creatinine concentration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Linda G T Gaines
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7431, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
50
|
Flack SL, Fent KW, Trelles Gaines LG, Thomasen JM, Whittaker S, Ball LM, Nylander-French LA. Quantitative plasma biomarker analysis in HDI exposure assessment. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 54:41-54. [PMID: 19805392 DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/mep069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Quantification of amines in biological samples is important for evaluating occupational exposure to diisocyanates. In this study, we describe the quantification of 1,6-hexamethylene diamine (HDA) levels in hydrolyzed plasma of 46 spray painters applying 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI)-containing paint in vehicle repair shops collected during repeated visits to their workplace and their relationship with dermal and inhalation exposure to HDI monomer. HDA was detected in 76% of plasma samples, as heptafluorobutyryl derivatives, and the range of HDA concentrations was < or =0.02-0.92 microg l(-1). After log-transformation of the data, the correlation between plasma HDA levels and HDI inhalation exposure measured on the same workday was low (N = 108, r = 0.22, P = 0.026) compared with the correlation between plasma HDA levels and inhalation exposure occurring approximately 20 to 60 days before blood collection (N = 29, r = 0.57, P = 0.0014). The correlation between plasma HDA levels and HDI dermal exposure measured on the same workday, although statistically significant, was low (N = 108, r = 0.22, P = 0.040) while the correlation between HDA and dermal exposure occurring approximately 20 to 60 days before blood collection was slightly improved (N = 29, r = 0.36, P = 0.053). We evaluated various workplace factors and controls (i.e. location, personal protective equipment use and paint booth type) as modifiers of plasma HDA levels. Workers using a downdraft-ventilated booth had significantly lower plasma HDA levels relative to semi-downdraft and crossdraft booth types (P = 0.0108); this trend was comparable to HDI inhalation and dermal exposure levels stratified by booth type. These findings indicate that HDA concentration in hydrolyzed plasma may be used as a biomarker of cumulative inhalation and dermal exposure to HDI and for investigating the effectiveness of exposure controls in the workplace.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sheila L Flack
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Rosenau Hall, NC 27599, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|