DNA modification in carcinogen risk assessment in relation to diet: recent advances and some perspectives from a MAFF workshop

Liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry: the future of DNA adduct detection

Over the past 40 years considerable emphasis has been placed on the development of accurate and sensitive methods for the detection and quantitation of DNA adducts. The formation of DNA adducts resulting from the covalent interaction of genotoxic carcinogens with DNA, derived from exogenous and endogenous sources, either directly or following metabolic activation, can if not repaired lead to mutations in critical genes such as those involved in the regulation of cellular growth and subsequent development of cancer. The major analytical challenge has been to detect levels of DNA adducts at the level of 0.1-1 adducts per 10(8) unmodified DNA bases using only low microgram amounts of DNA, and with high specificity and accuracy, in humans exposed to genotoxic carcinogens derived from occupational, environmental, dietary and life-style sources. In this review we will highlight the merits as well as discuss the progress made by liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization mass spectrometry as a method for DNA adduct detection.

Dose-response relationships for hepatic aflatoxin B1-DNA adduct formation in the rat in vivo and in vitro: the use of immunoslot blotting for adduct quantitation

An immunoslot blotting (ISB) method for quantitating aflatoxin B1-DNA adduct levels has been developed and used to examine the relationship between dose and hepatic aflatoxin B1-DNA adduct levels in rats fed aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in the diet at dose levels of between 0.5 and 10 micrograms/kg/day. The method has also been used to examine the dose-response relationship for adduct formation in precision-cut rat liver slices incubated with AFB1 at concentrations between 0.01 and 2 microM. For the feeding studies, groups of male Fisher F344 rats were given AFB1 in the diet for periods of 1 to 10 weeks and hepatic DNA adduct levels determined using ISB. The time for adduct levels to reach steady-state conditions was determined in animals given approximately 10 micrograms of AFB1/kg/day and steady-state levels at lower concentrations measured. The time course for the accumulation of AFB1-DNA adducts in rat liver slices incubated with AFB1 at 0.5 microM has been investigated and the relationship between adduct formation and AFB1 concentration over a wide concentration range in liver slices has been determined.

Factors influencing the carcinogenicity of food chemicals

The relationship between food and cancer is extremely complex. It is generally accepted that diet is a contributory factor in the aetiology of a large proportion of cancers, but with very few exceptions, we are unable to identify specific causal agents. Many food components have genotoxic potential and more are produced endogenously during digestion. Conversely, there is increasing evidence that consumption of some foods may decrease the risk of cancer, and a number of plant constituents have been shown to have the potential to inhibit various stages of the carcinogenic process. Yet we have little understanding of the interactions between the different food-related genotoxic and protective factors. A further complication is the variation in individual susceptibility and vulnerability. As a result we are still not able to determine the optimal diet for minimising cancer risk. In recognition of these issues, the UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) is funding a number of projects aimed at providing greater mechanistic understanding of the links between food and cancer, in order to offer detailed advice to the public. This report summarises the proceedings of a workshop entitled 'Factors influencing the carcinogenicity of food chemicals', held in London on 1 June 1998, providing overviews of some of the key issues, and demonstrating how the MAFF-funded research is contributing to advances in these areas. It includes discussion of genetic polymorphisms and how they may contribute to individual susceptibility and help to identify causal links between food components and colorectal cancer. Biomarkers of DNA damage in human studies and of inhibition of carcinogen activation and endogenous formation of genotoxic reactive nitrogen species are examined. Also considered are the potential uses of physiologically based pharmacokinetic modelling techniques for providing more accurate estimates of risk and reducing the uncertainty in extrapolation between species and doses. Research now in progress will help to establish the critical risk and protective factors involved in diet-related colorectal cancers, in order to provide a sound scientific basis for formulation of dietary advice to the public.

What is the significance of increases in background levels of carcinogen-derived protein and DNA adducts? Some considerations for incremental risk assessment

Improvements in analytical methodology have led to the detection and quantification of 'background' levels of a number of DNA and protein adducts. Many of these adducts are derived from 'low molecular weight' reactive species which may be generated during normal physiological processes, metabolic pathways or inflammatory processes. The adducts have been detected using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, HPLC in combination with various detection systems, 32P-postlabelling and immunoassay methods. The reliability and accuracy of many widely used methods for adduct measurements are discussed with reference to several examples where human data is available, namely 4-aminobiphenyl, malondialdehyde, methylating agents, ethylene oxide and hydroxyl radical damage. The accurate and specific quantitation of 'background' levels of damage is essential if reliable estimates of increases in risk associated with incremental increases in exposure to exogenous agents are to be calculated. In experimental studies using low dose exposures to carcinogens, such as N-nitrosodimethylamine, adduct levels in liver correlate closely with tumour incidence. In all likelihood, such relationships need to be established for each exposure and, in order to be relevant to human risk assessment, need to take into account factors such as DNA repair and mutagenic efficiency. Finally, in order to estimate the increase in cancer attributable to a given level of external exposure, it is clearly important to establish background levels of corresponding DNA damage so that the scale of the incremental increase can be calculated.

Inhibitors of topoisomerase II enzymes: a unique group of environmental mutagens and carcinogens

Many inhibitors of topoisomerase II enzymes are potent mutagens, leading to major chromosomal deletions, illegitimate recombination and aneuploidy. There is increasing evidence that they are also human carcinogens. However, their lack of chemical reactivity means that they may give weak or negative results in commonly used mutagenicity tests, or may give data with characteristics quite distinct from chemicals that alkylate DNA. They do not form DNA adducts and assays such as 32P-postlabelling will not detect their presence in the body. They are generally not point mutagens and may fail to provide distinctive fingerprints in mutation spectra. These characteristics may be limiting a realistic evaluation of their role in human carcinogenesis using current methodologies.