Understanding workplace boredom among white collar employees: Temporary reactions and individual differences

Is boredom at work bad for your health? Examining the links between job boredom and autonomic nervous system dysfunction

Job boredom refers to an unpleasant state of passiveness at work that has been found to negatively relate to self-reported health. To date, however, the relation between job boredom and physiological indicators of health has not been examined. The present study investigates whether job boredom relates to dysfunction in autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity as indicated by reduced heart rate variability (HRV) during night sleep. The sample of this study consisted of Finnish public sector workers (n = 125). Job boredom was assessed with an electronic questionnaire and HRV with an ambulatory monitoring period of two nights of sleep. The results supported the hypothesis by showing a negative relation between job boredom and HRV, after controlling for demographic and lifestyle factors. The findings extend previous knowledge on the detrimental consequences of job boredom by showing that it is related to dysfunction in ANS activity. Consequently, it is important to acknowledge boredom at work as a threat to occupational health and well-being and pay more attention to how it can be prevented at workplaces.

Boredom and engagement at work: do they have different antecedents and consequences?

This study aimed to demonstrate the empirical distinctiveness of boredom at work and work engagement in relation to their potential antecedents (job demands and job resources) and consequences (psychological distress and turnover intention) based on the Job Demands-Resources model. A three-wave longitudinal survey was conducted among registered monitors of an Internet survey company in Japan. The questionnaire included scales for boredom at work, work engagement, psychological distress, and turnover intention as well as participants' job characteristics and demographic variables. The hypothesized model was evaluated via structural equation modeling with 1,019 participants who were employed full-time. As expected, boredom at work was negatively associated with quantitative job demands and job resources and positively associated with psychological distress and turnover intention. In contrast, work engagement was positively associated with job resources and negatively associated with turnover intention. Thus, boredom at work and work engagement had different potential antecedents and were inversely related to employee well-being and organizational outcomes. However, contrary to expectations, qualitative job demands were not significantly associated with boredom at work. Further investigation is needed to understand the relationship between boredom and qualitative job demands, which require sustained cognitive load and the use of higher skills.

Towards a Holistic Framework of Knowledge Worker Productivity

Many jobs today are predominantly knowledge work. This makes organizations dependent on value created by knowledge workers (KWs). Many of the initiatives to improve and manage knowledge worker productivity (KWP) give unpredictable results depending on factors that are often hidden and unknown. It is important to find a holistic approach to improve and manage KWP that gives consistent results across many different organizations. This paper takes us a step closer towards that objective by mapping insights gained from a systematic literature review to activities in a purposeful activity model of the individual KW at work and, based on the findings, proposing a draft of a holistic KWP framework. The main components of the framework are the state of the individual KW, work done and outcome. The systematic literature review searched for papers with topics that touched on approaches, frameworks, tools, or models which aim to tackle the productivity, performance, effectiveness, efficiency, or management of KWs. Relevant concepts were extracted from each paper and categorized into groups. Twelve groups were formed of which six consisted of concepts relevant to individual KWs and their work: organizational commitment and engagement, communication and relationships, personal characteristics and development, personal knowledge management, well-being and job satisfaction and task approach.

Validation of the Japanese version of the Dutch Boredom Scale

OBJECTIVES

The current study aimed to validate the Japanese version of the Dutch Boredom Scale (DUBS-J), a new boredom scale that comprehensively assesses employees' emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses to low-stimulus work situations.

METHODS

The translated and back-translated DUBS was administered via an internet survey to 1358 Japanese employees from various occupations. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to evaluate factorial validity. In order to evaluate discriminant validity with other work-related, well-being constructs, CFA was conducted, and the square root of average variance extracted (AVE) for the DUBS-J and the square of the inter-construct correlations were compared. Construct validity was evaluated based on the correlation coefficients between boredom at work on the one hand and potential antecedents and consequences on the other hand.

RESULTS

Confirmatory factor analysis supported the expected one-factor model. CFA and AVE supported the discriminant validity of DUBS-J with work engagement, workaholism, and job satisfaction. Construct validity was generally supported by expected correlations of boredom at work with possible antecedents and consequences. Internal consistency was confirmed with Cronbach's alpha coefficient = .88, and the results of principal component analysis (PCA). Test-retest reliability was confirmed with intraclass correlation coefficients = .62.

CONCLUSION

The current study confirmed that DUBS-J is an adequate measure of boredom at work that can be used in the Japanese context.

Time Perspective and the Risk of Developing Burnout: An Empirical Study among Different Blue-Collar Workers in Spain

The purpose of this research was to analyze the relationship between the time perspective of Spanish shipyard workers in relation to burnout compared to other blue-collar workers in other sectors, including a total of 644 participants in a shipyard in northern Spain and 223 workers in other sectors. The ages were between 20 and 69 (M = 46.14, SD = 10.98). We used the Spanish version of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Instrument (ZTPI) and the Maslach Burnout Inventory–General Survey (MBI-GS). The mean of the three reliability coefficients of the emotional exhaustion factor was 0.887. In respect to the five factors of the ZTPI questionnaire, the mean of those five coefficients was 0.86. A Student’s t-test for independent samples comparing shipyard naval workers vs. the control group in personality variables and burnout was used. The psychological difference between workers in the naval sector and those in other sectors is better predicted based on two variables: emotional exhaustion and professional efficacy. Workers in the naval sector have a higher risk of becoming burnt-out than workers in other sectors due to a negative past, present and future time perspective. This can be a consequence of constant understimulation and monotonous and repetitive work, as well as a lack of autonomy and social support at work.

Personality and boredom at work: the mediating role of job crafting

Purpose

Boredom at work is associated with negative consequences, therefore it is important to investigate whether employees engage in job crafting behaviors that reduce boredom and what are the individual differences associated with these behaviors. The paper aims to discuss these issues.

Design/methodology/approach

A questionnaire study was designed to examine the mediating role of job crafting in the relationship between conscientiousness and emotional stability and boredom among 252 employees (Study 1) and in the relationship between Machiavellianism and psychopathy and boredom among 216 employees (Study 2).

Findings

The results showed that conscientiousness is negatively related to work-related boredom. This relationship is mediated by job crafting. Neuroticism and psychopathy are positively associated with boredom at work, but these relationships are not mediated by job crafting behaviors.

Research limitations/implications

The study was based on self-reported measures, which might raise questions of common-method bias, and the research samples contained mostly women and young employees, which raises questions about generalizability of our findings. At the same time, the cross-sectional design does not allow causal inferences.

Practical implications

Organizations can select employees based on their personality for jobs that predispose to boredom and give them enough autonomy to be able to craft them. Moreover, they can identify employees who need support to manage their boredom and include them in job crafting interventions.

Originality/value

Traditionally, boredom at work has been considered as resulting from characteristics of tasks and jobs. The findings indicate that some employees can make self-initiated changes to their work in order to reduce their boredom and possibly its negative consequences.

Vigilance Decrement and Enhancement Techniques: A Review

This paper presents the first comprehensive review on vigilance enhancement using both conventional and unconventional means, and further discusses the resulting contradictory findings. It highlights the key differences observed between the research findings and argues that variations of the experimental protocol could be a significant contributing factor towards such contradictory results. Furthermore, the paper reveals the effectiveness of unconventional means of enhancement in significant reduction of vigilance decrement compared to conventional means. Meanwhile, a discussion on the challenges of enhancement techniques is presented, with several suggested recommendations and alternative strategies to maintain an adequate level of vigilance for the task at hand. Additionally, this review provides evidence in support of the use of unconventional means of enhancement on vigilance studies, regardless of their practical challenges.

When the Job Does Not Fit: The Moderating Role of Job Crafting and Meaningful Work in the Relation Between Employees’ Perceived Overqualification and Job Boredom

Job boredom is a common experience at work; however, it has been neglected in research and practice compared to other well-being states. Based on the person-job fit theory, this article aims to examine the association between employees’ perceived overqualification and job boredom, analyzing potential moderators. In Study 1, we analyzed job crafting as a moderator using a sample of 832 employees from different organizations in Puerto Rico. Results supported the relation between employees’ perceived overqualification and job boredom but did not support the moderating effect of job crafting since only two dimensions (i.e., increasing structural resources and increasing challenging demands) significantly moderate this association in an opposite direction. In Study 2, we analyzed the moderating role of meaningful work with a sample of 394 employees. Results supported the moderating effect of meaningful work on the relation between employees’ perceived overqualification and job boredom. While job crafting dimensions of increasing structural resources and increasing challenging demands strengthen or have little effect on reducing the association between employees’ perceived overqualification and job boredom, meaningful work buffers this effect. These findings suggest that organizations must provide opportunities for employees to find meaning in their jobs. Additional research is needed to understand the role of job crafting to reduce job boredom.

Perceived Overqualification, Boredom, and Extra-Role Behaviors: Testing a Moderated Mediation Model

Despite increasing research on the mechanisms that underlie the relation between perceived overqualification (POQ) and extra-role behaviors, the relation’s affective mechanisms have been understudied. In this study, we focus on the role of job boredom among overqualified workers in order to understand two types of extra-role behaviors: counterproductive work behaviors (CWB) and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB). Using a sample of white-collar employees in South Korea ( N = 298), we found that job boredom fully mediated the effects of POQ on CWB and OCB after controlling for the effects of state anger and neuroticism. We additionally examined whether career calling moderates the indirect effects of POQ on CWB and OCB via job boredom and found career calling mitigated the negative indirect effect of POQ on OCB via job boredom. However, career calling did not moderate the positive indirect effect of POQ on CWB. Implications of these findings are discussed.

The state of boredom: Frustrating or depressing?

Boredom is a prevalent emotion with potential negative consequences. Previous research has associated boredom with outcomes indicating both high and low levels of arousal and activation. In the present study we propose that the situational context is an important factor that may determine whether boredom relates to high versus low arousal/activation reactions. In a correlational (N = 443) and an experimental study (N = 120) we focused on the situational factor (perceived) task autonomy, and examined whether it explains when boredom is associated with high versus low arousal affective reactions (i.e., frustration versus depressed affect). Results of both studies indicate that when task autonomy is low, state boredom relates to more frustration than when task autonomy is high. In contrast, some support (i.e., Study 1 only) was found suggesting that when task autonomy is high, state boredom relates to more depressed affect than when task autonomy is low. These findings imply that careful attention is needed for tasks that are relatively boring. In order to reduce frustration caused by such tasks, substantial autonomy should be provided, while monitoring that this does not result in increased depressed affect.

A Soft Systems Approach to Knowledge Worker Productivity—Analysis of the Problem Situation

Low knowledge worker productivity is an important problem that needs to be addressed. Current research addressing this problem is fragmented and deals with different isolated elements of the problem. There is a need for a holistic approach to knowledge worker productivity. This paper takes the first steps of a holistic approach to knowledge worker productivity by using soft systems methodology to describe the problem situation. The main challenge of this research was the abstraction of the results from two literature reviews into simple rich pictures and specific root definitions to identify the fundamentals of knowledge worker productivity. The problem situation was explored from the perspective of two problem owners, the organization and the individual knowledge worker. The rich picture from the perspective of the organization highlighted that the organization must communicate what they perceive as value and create a work environment that promotes collaboration, encourages knowledge sharing, motivates and fulfills the needs of their knowledge workers. The rich picture from the perspective of the individual knowledge worker highlighted the fact that knowledge workers need to manage their personal resources, be effective and efficient to maximize their own productivity. This paper attempts to integrate these two perspectives into a holistic view.

Boredom in the Workplace: Reasons, Impact, and Solutions

Boredom in the workplace is not uncommon, and has been discussed widely in the academic literature in relation to the associated costs to individuals and organizations. Boredom can give rise to errors, adverse patient events, and decreased productivity-costly and unnecessary outcomes for consumers, employees, and organizations alike. As a function of boredom, individuals may feel over-worked or under-employed, and become distracted, stressed, or disillusioned. Staff who are bored also are less likely to engage with or focus on their work. In this article, we consider the nature of boredom and also the reasons why employees, including mental health nurses, become bored in the workplace. We also discuss the role that can be taken by employees and employers to recognise and address the problem of boredom and we consider how best to develop sustainable workplaces that are characterised by engaged employees who provide the best possible service in healthcare settings.

Self-Report Measures of Boredom: An Updated Review of the Literature

A detailed review of the psychometric measures of boredom was published approximately 12 years ago (Vodanovich, 2003). Since that time, numerous studies have been conducted on existing scales, and new measures of boredom have been developed. Given these assessment advancements, an updated review of self-report boredom scales is warranted. The primary focus of the current review is research published since 2003, and it includes a total of 16 boredom scales. The measures reviewed consist of two trait assessments (Boredom Proneness Scale, Boredom Susceptibility subscale of the Sensation Seeking Scale), five context-specific trait boredom scales (Boredom Coping Scale, Leisure Boredom Scale, Free Time Boredom Scale, Sexual Boredom Scale, Relational Boredom Scale), three assessments of state boredom (Multidimensional State Boredom Scale, State Boredom Measure, Boredom Experience Scale), and six context-specific state boredom measures-Lee's Job Boredom Scale, Dutch Boredom Scale, Boredom Coping Scale (Academic), the Boredom subscale of the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire, Academic Boredom Scale, Precursors to Boredom Scale. In addition to providing a review of these measures, a brief critique of each scale is included, as well as suggestions for needed research focus.