The effects of phytoestrogens on postmenopausal health

Effect of hyperoside on osteoporosis in ovariectomized mice through estrogen receptor α/ITGβ3 signaling pathway

Osteoporosis is a highly prevalent bone metabolic disease in menopause due to estrogen deficiency. Hyperoside is a main compound in Semen cuscutae. Our team previously reported that Semen cuscutae has anti osteoporosis effect on ovariectomized mice by inhibiting bone resorption of osteoclasts. However, it is still unclear whether hyperoside affects osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption, and whether its anti-osteoporosis effect is related to an estrogen-like effect. This study investigates the potential mechanism of hyperoside's anti-osteoporotic effect by examining its impact on osteoclast differentiation and its relationship with the estrogen receptor. DXA, Micro-CT, TRAP staining, HE, and ELISA were used to assess the impact of hyperoside on OVX-induced osteoporosis. The effect of hyperoside on octeoclast differentiation was evaluated using TRAP activity assay, TRAP staining, F-actin staining. The activation of the estrogen receptor by hyperoside and its relationship with osteoclast differentiation were detected using dual-luciferase reporter assay and estrogen receptor antagonists. Our findings revealed that hyperoside (20-80 mg/kg) protect against OVX-induced osteoporosis, including increasing BMD and BMC and improving bone microstructure. Hyperoside inhibited osteoclast differentiation in a concentration dependent manner, whereas estrogen receptor α antagonists reversed its inhibitory effect osteoclast differentiation. Western blot results suggested that hyperoside inhibited TRAP, RANKL, c-Fos and ITG β3 protein expression in osteoclast or femoral bone marrow of ovariectomized mice. Our findings suggest that hyperoside inhibits osteoclast differentiation and protects OVX-induced osteoporosis through the ERα/ITGβ3 signaling pathway.

Nutrition-Based Support for Osteoporosis in Postmenopausal Women: A Review of Recent Evidence

Postmenopausal osteoporosis stands as the predominant bone disorder in the developed world, posing a significant public health challenge. Nutritional factors play a crucial role in bone health and may contribute to its prevention or treatment. Calcium and vitamin D, extensively studied with robust scientific evidence, are integral components of the non-pharmacological treatment for this disorder. Nevertheless, other less-explored nutritional elements appear to influence bone metabolism. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the latest evidence concerning the relationship between various nutrients, such as phosphorus, magnesium, vitamins, phytate, and phytoestrogens; specific foods like dairy or soy, and dietary patterns such as the Mediterranean diet with bone health and osteoporosis.

Could psychobiotics and fermented foods improve mood in middle-aged and older women?

Menopause is a natural physiological phase during which women experience dramatic hormonal fluctuations. These lead to many symptoms, such as depression and anxiety, which, in turn, can negatively affect quality of life. Proper nutrition has an influential role in alleviating depression as well as anxiety. It is well known that gut microbiota dysbiosis contributes to the development of mood disorder. There is mounting evidence that modulating the gut-brain axis may aid in improving mood swings. In this context, this narrative review summarizes recent findings on how aging changes the composition of the gut microbiota and on the association between gut microbiota and mood disorders. In addition, it evaluates the effectiveness of psychobiotics and fermented foods in treating mood swings in middle-aged and older women. A search was done using PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar, and thirteen recent articles are included in this review. It is evident that psychobiotic supplementation and fermented foods can improve mood swings via several routes. However, these conclusions are based on only a few studies in middle-aged and older women. Therefore, long-term, well-designed randomized controlled trials are required to fully evaluate whether psychobiotics and fermented foods can be used to treat mood swings in this population.

Targeting the gut microbiota-related metabolites for osteoporosis: The inextricable connection of gut-bone axis

Osteoporosis is a systemic skeletal disease characterized by decreased bone mass, destruction of bone microstructure, raised bone fragility, and enhanced risk of fractures. The correlation between gut microbiota and bone metabolism has gradually become a widespread research hotspot in recent years, and successive studies have revealed that the alterations of gut microbiota and its-related metabolites are related to the occurrence and progression of osteoporosis. Moreover, several emerging studies on the relationship between gut microbiota-related metabolites and bone metabolism are also underway, and extensive research evidence has indicated an inseparable connection between them. Combined with latest literatures and based on inextricable connection of gut-bone axis, this review is aimed to summarize the relation, potential mechanisms, application strategies, clinical application prospects, and existing challenges of gut microbiota and its-related metabolites on osteoporosis, thus updating the knowledge in this research field and providing certain reference for future researches.

Pomegranate effects on the health aspects of women during peri- and postmenopause: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Pomegranate is widely used to preserve human health and help prevent many kinds of diseases. This study aims to review and assess the effects of pomegranate on women's health during and after menopause. PubMed, Web of science, Cochrane, Scopus, and Google Scholar were searched up to the end of 2022 with no language or study type restriction. All types of clinical research studies (randomized clinical trial [RCT], pre-post, case report, and case series) were included. The Cochrane RoB 2.0 tool was used for quality assessment of RCTs. A summary of intervention's effects for each study was provided by calculating standardized mean differences and accompanying 95% confidence interval using random effect model. Weighted mean differences and heterogeneity between studies were assessed using Hedges's method and Cochran's Q test, respectively. Pomegranate can significantly improve hot flashes severity and menopause symptoms and decrease FSH. It significantly improves high-density lipoprotein but not low-density lipoprotein, body mass index, and weight. Most of our results are inconclusive, and the small sample sizes and the lack of blinding and randomization have led to an increased risk of bias. Pomegranate can decrease menopause symptoms, but more well-designed studies, with bigger sample sizes are needed to establish its other clinical benefits for menopausal women.

Polyphenols as potential preventers of osteoporosis: A comprehensive review on antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, molecular mechanisms, and signal pathways in bone metabolism

Osteoporosis (OP) is a skeletal disorder characterized by decreased bone density, alterations in bone microstructure, and increased damage to the bones. As the population ages and life expectancy increases, OP has become a global epidemic, drawing attention from scientists and doctors. Because of polyphenols have favorable antioxidant and anti-allergy effects, which are regarded as potential methods to prevent angiocardipathy and OP. Polyphenols offer a promising approach to preventing and treating OP by affecting bone metabolism, reducing bone resolution, maintaining bone density, and lowering the differentiation level of osteoclasts (OC). There are multiple ways in which polyphenols affect bone metabolism. This article provides an overview of how polyphenols inhibit oxidative stress, exert antibacterial effects, and prevent the occurrence of OP. Furthermore, we will explore the regulatory mechanisms and signaling pathways implicated in this process.

The Comparative Study of the Administration of the Combination Preparation of Isoflavones and Hyaluronic Acid in Menopausal Women for the Treatment of the Symptoms of Menopause, Urogenital Atrophy and Oteoporosis in Relation to Existing Hormone Replacement Therapies

Background

Menopause is characterized by a series of symptoms and effects from the various systems and organs, for which, the decline in estrogen production from the ovaries is considered responsible.

Objective

The aim of this study was to make comparative study of the administration of the combination preparation of isoflavones and hyaluronic acid in menopausal women for the treatment of the symptoms of menopause, urogenital atrophy and osteoporosis in relation to existing hormone replacement therapies.

Methods

In this five-year, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical study, a total of 274 postmenopausal women were enrolled and classified into three groups. Participants in group A, were 96 women who did not receive Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT), in the second group, 92 received daily treatment with tibolone (2.5 mg) as monotherapy, and in the third group, 86 received treatment with a pharmaceutical formulation of hyaluronic acid 120 mg and isoflavones. MF11RCE 80 mg.

Results

In the postmenopausal women of our study, a significant reduction of postmenopausal symptoms was found in both groups B and C of participants who received hormone replacement preparations compared to group A who did not receive HRT. Furthermore, no difference in efficacy was observed between the administered preparations of isoflavones and tibolone.

Conclusion

The combination of isoflavones and hyaluronic acid has the same efficacy as tibolone in menopausal symptoms.

Characterization of the volatile profile and its estrogenic activity in Kadsura coccinea fruit

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The fruit of Kadsura coccinea (Lem.) A. C. Smith is an ethnomedicine used to treat abnormal menstruation, menopausal syndrome, and female infertility among the Dong Nationality in China.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Our study aimed to identify the volatile oil profiles of the K. coccinea fruit and elucidate their estrogenic activity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The peel volatile oil (PeO), pulp volatile oil (PuO), and seed volatile oil (SeO) of K. coccinea were extracted using hydrodistillation and qualitatively analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Estrogenic activity was evaluated in vitro using cell assay and in vivo using immature female rats. Serum 17β-Estradiol (E2) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels were detected using ELISA.

RESULTS

In total, 46 PeO, 27 PuO, and 42 SeO components representing 89.96%, 90.19%, and 97% of the total composition, respectively, were identified. The compounds with the highest content in PeO, PuO, and SeO were β-caryophyllene, γ-amorphene, and n-hexadecanoic acid, respectively. PeO induced proliferation of MCF-7 cells with an EC₅₀ of 7.40 μg/mL. Subcutaneous administration of 10 mg/kg PeO significantly increased the weight of the uteri in immature female rats, with no effect on serum E2 and FSH levels. PeO acted as an agonist of ERα and ERβ. PuO and SeO showed no estrogenic activity.

CONCLUSION

The chemical compositions of PeO, PuO, and SeO of K. coccinea are different. PeO is the main effective fraction for estrogenic activities, providing a new source of phytoestrogen for the treatment of menopausal symptoms.

Functional biotransformation of phytoestrogens by gut microbiota with impact on cancer treatment

The human gut is a host for trillions of microorganisms, divided into more than 3000 heterogeneous species, which is called the gut microbiota. The gut microbiota composition can be altered by many different endogenous and exogenous factors, especially diet and nutrition. A diet rich in phytoestrogens, a variable group of chemical compounds similar to 17-β-estradiol (E2), the essential female steroid sex hormone is potent to change the composition of gut microbiota. However, the metabolism of phytoestrogens also highly depends on the action of enzymes produced by gut microbiota. Novel studies have shown that phytoestrogens could play an important role in the treatment of different types of cancers, such as breast cancer in women, due to their potential to decrease estrogen levels. This review aims to summarize recent findings about the lively dialogue between phytoestrogens and the gut microbiota and to address their possible future application, especially in treating patients with diagnosed breast cancer. A potential therapeutic approach for the prevention and improving outcomes in breast cancer patients could be based on targeted probiotic supplementation with the use of soy phytoestrogens. A positive effect of probiotics on the outcome and survival of patients with breast cancer has been established. However, more in vivo scientific studies are needed to pave the way for the use of probiotics and phytoestrogens in the clinical practice of breast cancer treatment.

Comprehensive compositional assessment of bioactive compounds in diverse pea accessions

Pea (Pisum sativum L.) is an important legume crop providing a good source of protein, vitamins, minerals and bioactive compounds with health benefits for humans. In this study, an improved method for simultaneous analysis of multiple phytoestrogens among 100 pea accessions was developed. Ipriflavone, (a synthetic isoflavone), was used as an internal standard for the semiquantitative analysis of 17 phytoestrogens including isoflavone aglycones and conjugates, allowing direct analysis of isoflavones in their naturally occurring forms. This comprehensive dataset demonstrated that the isoflavones varied greatly and some accessions tended to have high levels of multiple phytoestrogens among the 100 accessions analyzed. Isoliquiritigenin followed by glycitein were the predominant compounds detected in the accessions and showed the highest correlation with the total phytoestrogens content. Secoisolariciresinol content was consistently higher in yellow cotyledon peas than in green cotyledon peas, whereas the contents of coumestrol, genestein and secoisolariciresinol were significantly correlated with seed coat color. The total phenolics and saponins showed a wide range of variability among the accessions with higher concentrations of total phenolics observed in seeds with pigmented seed coat or yellow cotyledon seeds, suggesting the synthesis of saponins and phenolics are significantly affected by metabolic pathway genes controlling cotyledon color or seed coat color. This study profiled the variability of bioactive compounds of pea seed quality traits in diverse pea accessions and provides an immense resource for continued research, breeding and selection of genotypes for a wide range of applications.

Formulation and In Vitro Evaluation of Mucoadhesive Sustained Release Gels of Phytoestrogen Diarylheptanoids from Curcuma comosa for Vaginal Delivery

Diarylheptanoids (DAs) characterized by a 1,7-diphenylheptane structural skeleton are considered a novel class of phytoestrogens. The DAs available in Curcuma comosa Roxb. (C. comosa) extract demonstrated significant estrogenic activities both in vitro and in vivo. This study aimed to develop and comprehensively evaluate a mucoadhesive vaginal gel for the sustained release of DAs. Different mucoadhesive polymers as gelling agents were investigated. C. comosa ethanolic crude extract was used as a source of DAs. All C. comosa gels were light brown homogeneous with pH within 4.4-4.6. Their flow behaviors were pseudoplastic with a flow behavior index of 0.18-0.38. The viscosity at a low shear rate varied from 6.2 to 335.4 Pa·s. Their mechanical and extrudability properties were associated well with rheological properties. Polycarbophil (PCP):hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) blends had a higher mucoadhesiveness to porcine vaginal mucosa than those of PCP-based or HPMC-based gels. All C. comosa gels exhibited a sustained, zero-order DA release pattern over 72 h. Korsmeyer and Peppas equation fitting indicated a non-Fickian, case II transport release mechanism. C. comosa gels had good physical and chemical stability under low-temperature storage for up to 12 months. PCP:HPMC-based mucoadhesive gels could be a proper delivery system for vaginal administration of DAs.

Overview on postmenopausal osteoporosis and periodontitis: The therapeutic potential of phytoestrogens against alveolar bone loss

Osteoporosis and periodontitis are two major chronic diseases of postmenopausal women. The association between these two diseases are evident through systemic bone loss and alveolar bone loss. Both postmenopausal osteoporosis and periodontitis impose a considerable personal and socioeconomic burden. Biphosphonate and hormone replacement therapy are effective in preventing bone loss in postmenopausal osteoporosis and periodontitis, but they are coupled with severe adverse effects. Phytoestrogens are plant-based estrogen-like compounds, which have been used for the treatment of menopause-related symptoms. In the last decades, numerous preclinical and clinical studies have been carried out to evaluate the therapeutic effects of phytoestrogens including bone health. The aim of this article is to give an overview of the bidirectional interrelationship between postmenopausal osteoporosis and periodontitis, summarize the skeletal effects of phytoestrogens and report the most studied phytoestrogens with promising alveolar bone protective effect in postmenopausal osteoporosis model, with and without experimental periodontitis. To date, there are limited studies on the effects of phytoestrogens on alveolar bone in postmenopausal osteoporosis. Phytoestrogens may have exerted their bone protective effect by inhibiting bone resorption and enhancing bone formation. With the reported findings on the protective effects of phytoestrogens on bone, well-designed trials are needed to better investigate their therapeutic effects. The compilation of outcomes presented in this review may provide an overview of the recent research findings in this field and direct further in vivo and clinical studies in the future.

The Effect of Vitamin E Supplementation in Postmenopausal Women-A Systematic Review

Menopause is a physiological change in any woman. Nevertheless, its symptoms could be difficult to accept, and hormone therapy can be sometimes unattractive or contraindicated. Vitamin E components are phytoestrogens, so they are believed to be useful in some indications including menopause. This review aimed to assess the available evidence on the effectiveness of vitamin E in alleviating menopausal symptoms. The Pubmed/MEDLINE, Cochrane Library and Scopus databases were screened. All types of studies that assessed the effectiveness of vitamin E in alleviating menopausal symptoms were included. The PICO question was: "How does vitamin E supplementation affect menopausal symptom occurrence?" The PROSPERO ID number of this review is CRD42022328830. After quality assessment, 16 studies were included in the analysis. The studies were divided into three groups in which the influence of vitamin E on the genital syndrome of menopause, vasomotor symptoms and vascular and metabolic changes were assessed. Vitamin E influences postmenopausal hot flashes, vascular modulation, plasma lipid profile level and vaginal changes. Compared to vitamin E, estrogen administration leads to better clinical effects. Nevertheless, vitamin E might serve as additive to hormone therapy and its alternative in women with contraindications to estrogens. More quality data are necessary to draw final conclusions.

Factors Influencing Skin Aging and the Important Role of Estrogens and Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs)

The narrative for this overview focuses on updating the factors that influence skin aging and the important role estrogens and selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) play in this process (mainly utilizing journal reports and reviews from the last four years). Estrogens have been known and studied for over a century. For many years, it has been recognized that estrogens are important in the maintenance of human skin. Women seek cosmetic and medical treatments to improve dermal health and physical characteristics to enhance their self-perception and inhibit skin aging, particularly in highly visible body areas. The goal: to retain estrogen’s positive benefits while aging and especially at/after menopause where estrogen-deficient skin contributes to the dramatic decline in skin health. In this overview, both background information and recent novel findings are included that cover aging (general mechanisms), skin aging, and factors that influence skin aging (intrinsic, extrinsic, skin microbiome and gut microbiome.) Plus, estrogen’s general role in maintaining skin health is presented through the classical estrogen receptors alpha (α) and beta (β) and non-classical (or non-genomic) estrogen receptor (G protein-coupled seven transmembrane receptor). More importantly, the various benefits of 17β-estradiol in skin health are examined (ie, skin collagen and elastin profiles that follow 17β-estradiol levels during aging and at/after menopause). Finally, a revision of information for estrogenic skin topical applications involving isoflavonoid compounds that act as SERMs, but are classified as endocrine disruptors, and a topical estrogen analog are explored to update the known and unknown characteristics of these treatments. Further study is warranted to understand the biological and molecular mechanisms by which estrogens support and enhance dermal health and wellbeing.

The crosstalk of the human microbiome in breast and colon cancer: A metabolomics analysis

The human microbiome's role in colon and breast cancer is described in this review. Understanding how the human microbiome and metabolomics interact with breast and colon cancer is the chief area of this study. First, the role of the gut and distal microbiome in breast and colon cancer is investigated, and the direct relationship between microbial dysbiosis and breast and colon cancer is highlighted. This work also focuses on the many metabolomic techniques used to locate prospective biomarkers, make an accurate diagnosis, and research new therapeutic targets for cancer treatment. This review clarifies the influence of anti-tumor medications on the microbiota and the proactive measures that can be taken to treat cancer using a variety of therapies, including radiotherapy, chemotherapy, next-generation biotherapeutics, gene-based therapy, integrated omics technology, and machine learning.

Estrogen Action and Gut Microbiome Metabolism in Dermal Health

Emerging scientific advances in microbial research linking estrogens and the gut-skin microbiome in reference to dermal health are featured in this narrative review of journal reports and reviews from January 2018 through February 2022. Background information on advances in microbial research along with defining the microbiota and microbiome is presented in brief. The development of and factors that influence the gut microbiome in health and disease as well as the intrinsic and extrinsic factors influencing the skin microbiome and skin aging are summarized. New information on the development and changes of organ microbiomes have exposed similarities between skin and gut structure/function, microbial components/diversity/taxonomy and how they impact the immune response for combating disease and enhancing wellness. Estrogens promote health and support homeostasis in general and directly impact dermal health. Moreover, the gut, based upon the level of the microbial enzyme β-glucuronidase, which regulates estrogen’s enterohepatic recirculation, constitutes a gut-skin microbial axis. This axis revolves around the systemically available estrogen to support immune function, counteract inflammation and oxidative stress, and decrease the risk of hormone-dependent skin cancers. These data support the direct effect of estrogens on skin health and the interaction of diet on dermal health via effects on the gut microflora. Finally, the potential for bioactive botanicals containing phytoestrogens or selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) to evade the effects of gut β-glucuronidase expressing flora is proposed that may have a positive impact on skin.

Decoding microbial genomes to understand their functional roles in human complex diseases

Complex diseases such as cardiovascular disease (CVD), obesity, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), kidney disease, type 2 diabetes (T2D), and cancer have become a major burden to public health and affect more than 20% of the population worldwide. The etiology of complex diseases is not yet clear, but they are traditionally thought to be caused by genetics and environmental factors (e.g., dietary habits), and by their interactions. Besides this, increasing pieces of evidence now highlight that the intestinal microbiota may contribute substantially to the health and disease of the human host via their metabolic molecules. Therefore, decoding the microbial genomes has been an important strategy to shed light on their functional potential. In this review, we summarize the roles of the gut microbiome in complex diseases from its functional perspective. We further introduce artificial tools in decoding microbial genomes to profile their functionalities. Finally, state-of-the-art techniques have been highlighted which may contribute to a mechanistic understanding of the gut microbiome in human complex diseases and promote the development of the gut microbiome-based personalized medicine.

Effects of Isoflavone Supplementation on the Response to Medroxyprogesterone in Premenopausal Women with Nonatypical Endometrial Hyperplasia: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of isoflavone supplementation compared with placebo on endometrial histology and serum estradiol levels in premenopausal women with nonatypical endometrial hyperplasia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present double-blindplacebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted on 100 women with nonatypical endometrial hyperplasia in the age range of 30 to 45 years. Participants were randomly assigned to receive 50 mg of isoflavone (n = 50) or placebos (n = 50) daily for three months. Both groups received the standard treatment of nonatypical endometrial hyperplasia. Endometrial biopsy and blood samples were taken at the baseline and three months after the intervention. The incidence of drug side effects was assessed as well.

RESULTS

After three months, 88.4% of isoflavone-administered subjects had a significant histological improvement compared to 68.9% subjects in the placebo group (P=0.02). There were no significant differences between the two groups in the changes of serum estradiol levels and the incidence of drug side effects.

CONCLUSION

The findings of the present study demonstrated that the coadministration of 50 mg of isoflavones and medroxyprogesterone acetate increases the treatment efficacy in women with nonatypical endometrial hyperplasia. Clinical Trial Registration. This trial was registered on the Iranian website for clinical trial registration (https://www.irct.ir/trial/53553).

In vitro evaluation of ferutinin on proliferation and osteogenesis differentiation in human unrestricted Somatic stem cells

Osteoporosis is a common disease in post-menopausal women. The increased risk of breast cancer and malignancy with hormone replacement, hampers its wide-usage. Phytoestrogens are known to have selective estrogen receptor modulator activity. The present study aims to determine how ferutinin affects unrestricted human Somatic Stem Cells (USSCs) osteogenic differentiation. The effect of ferutinin on USSCs proliferation was assessed by MTT assay while osteogenesis was evaluated using Alkaline Phosphatase Activity (ALP), calcium deposition and Alizarin Red Staining. Quantitative real-time PCR was applied to examine the expression of bone specific genes such as osteocalcin, Runx₂, and BMP-₂. Ferutinin (5-15 µg/mL) could positively impact on the proliferation of cells in a dose-dependent manner. Also, ALP enzyme activity and calcium deposition were enhanced in the presence of ferutinin. Based on real-time PCR results, ferutinin could increase the expression of bone marker genes. The pattern of ferutinin effect on gene expression is similar to standard synthetic estrogen, 17-β-estradiol. In the presence of the estrogen activity inhibitor (ICI), the effect of ferutinin on ALP and gene level was diminished. In conclusion, ferutinin may be considered as a potential candidate for the stem cell therapy in osteoporosis.

Estrogenic Plants: to Prevent Neurodegeneration and Memory Loss and Other Symptoms in Women After Menopause

In mammals, sexual hormones such as estrogens play an essential role in maintaining brain homeostasis and function. Estrogen deficit in the brain induces many undesirable symptoms such as learning and memory impairment, sleep and mood disorders, hot flushes, and fatigue. These symptoms are frequent in women who reached menopausal age or have had ovariectomy and in men and women subjected to anti-estrogen therapy. Hormone replacement therapy alleviates menopause symptoms; however, it can increase cardiovascular and cancer diseases. In the search for therapeutic alternatives, medicinal plants and specific synthetic and natural molecules with estrogenic effects have attracted widespread attention between the public and the scientific community. Various plants have been used for centuries to alleviate menstrual and menopause symptoms, such as Cranberry, Ginger, Hops, Milk Thistle, Red clover, Salvia officinalis, Soy, Black cohosh, Turnera diffusa, Ushuva, and Vitex. This review aims to highlight current evidence about estrogenic medicinal plants and their pharmacological effects on cognitive deficits induced by estrogen deficiency during menopause and aging.

Gut Microbiota and Gynecological Cancers: A Summary of Pathogenetic Mechanisms and Future Directions

Over the past 20 years, important relationships between the microbiota and human health have emerged. A link between alterations of microbiota composition (dysbiosis) and cancer development has been recently demonstrated. In particular, the composition and the oncogenic role of intestinal bacterial flora has been extensively investigated in preclinical and clinical studies focusing on gastrointestinal tumors. Overall, the development of gastrointestinal tumors is favored by dysbiosis as it leads to depletion of antitumor substances (e.g., short-chain fatty acids) produced by healthy microbiota. Moreover, dysbiosis leads to alterations of the gut barrier, promotes a chronic inflammatory status through activation of toll-like receptors, and causes metabolic and hormonal dysregulations. However, the effects of these imbalances are not limited to the gastrointestinal tract and they can influence gynecological tumor carcinogenesis as well. The purpose of this Review is to provide a synthetic update about the mechanisms of interaction between gut microbiota and the female reproductive tract favoring the development of neoplasms. Furthermore, novel therapeutic approaches based on the modulation of microbiota and their role in gynecological oncology are discussed.

Binding of Androgen- and Estrogen-Like Flavonoids to Their Cognate (Non)Nuclear Receptors: A Comparison by Computational Prediction

Flavonoids are plant bioactives that are recognized as hormone-like polyphenols because of their similarity to the endogenous sex steroids 17β-estradiol and testosterone, and to their estrogen- and androgen-like activity. Most efforts to verify flavonoid binding to nuclear receptors (NRs) and explain their action have been focused on ERα, while less attention has been paid to other nuclear and non-nuclear membrane androgen and estrogen receptors. Here, we investigate six flavonoids (apigenin, genistein, luteolin, naringenin, quercetin, and resveratrol) that are widely present in fruits and vegetables, and often used as replacement therapy in menopause. We performed comparative computational docking simulations to predict their capability of binding nuclear receptors ERα, ERβ, ERRβ, ERRγ, androgen receptor (AR), and its variant ART877A and membrane receptors for androgens, i.e., ZIP9, GPRC6A, OXER1, TRPM8, and estrogens, i.e., G Protein-Coupled Estrogen Receptor (GPER). In agreement with data reported in literature, our results suggest that these flavonoids show a relevant degree of complementarity with both estrogen and androgen NR binding sites, likely triggering genomic-mediated effects. It is noteworthy that reliable protein-ligand complexes and estimated interaction energies were also obtained for some suggested estrogen and androgen membrane receptors, indicating that flavonoids could also exert non-genomic actions. Further investigations are needed to clarify flavonoid multiple genomic and non-genomic effects. Caution in their administration could be necessary, until the safe assumption of these natural molecules that are largely present in food is assured.