Protective effect of hydroxysafflor yellow A on dopaminergic neurons against 6-hydroxydopamine, activating anti-apoptotic and anti-neuroinflammatory pathways

IRE1/JNK Is the Leading UPR Pathway in 6-OHDA-Induced Degeneration of Differentiated SH-SY5Y Cells

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder which affects dopaminergic neurons of the midbrain. Accumulation of α-synuclein or exposure to neurotoxins like 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) induces endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress along with the unfolded protein response (UPR), which executes apoptosis via activation of PERK/CHOP or IRE1/JNK signaling. The present study aimed to determine which of these pathways is a major contributor to neurodegeneration in an 6-OHDA-induced in vitro model of PD. For this purpose, we have applied pharmacological PERK and JNK inhibitors (AMG44 and JNK V) in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells exposed to 6-OHDA. Inhibition of PERK and JNK significantly decreased genotoxicity and improved mitochondrial respiration, but only JNK inhibition significantly increased cell viability. Gene expression analysis revealed that the effect of JNK inhibition was dependent on a decrease in MAPK10 and XBP1 mRNA levels, whereas inhibition of either PERK or JNK significantly reduced the expression of DDIT3 mRNA. Western blot has shown that JNK inhibition strongly induced the XBP1s protein, and inhibition of each pathway attenuated the phosphorylation of eIF2α and JNK, as well as the expression of CHOP. Collectively, our data suggests that targeting the IRE1/JNK pathway of the UPR is a more effective option for PD treatment as it simultaneously affects more than one pro-apoptotic pathway.

Tricin promoted ATG-7 dependent autophagic degradation of α-synuclein and dopamine release for improving cognitive and motor deficits in Parkinson's disease

Tricin, a natural nontoxic flavonoid distributed in grasses and euphorbia plants, has been reported to scavenge free radicals, possess anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects. However, its autophagic effect on Parkinson's disease (PD) has not been elucidated. By adopting cellular and C. elegans models of PD, the autophagic effect of tricin was identified based on the level of autophagy markers (LC3-II and p62). Besides, the pharmacological effects on neurotransmitters (dopamine), inflammatory cytokines (IFN γ, TNFα, MCP-1, IL-10, IL-6 and IL-17A), histology (hematoxylin & eosin and Nissl staining) and behavioural pathology (open-field test, hindlimb clasping, Y-maze, Morris water-maze and nest building test) were also confirmed in the A53T-α-synuclein transgenic PD mouse model. Further experiments demonstrated that tricin induced autophagic flux and lowered the level of α-synuclein through AMPK-p70s6K- and ATG7-dependent mechanism. Compared to the existing clinical PD drugs, tricin mitigated pathogenesis and symptoms of PD with no observable side effects. In summary, tricin is proposed as a potential adjuvant remedy or nutraceutical for the prevention and treatment of PD.

Beneficial effects of natural flavonoids on neuroinflammation

Neuroinflammation is the fundamental immune response against multiple factors in the central nervous system and is characterized by the production of inflammatory mediators, activated microglia and astrocytes, and the recruitment of innate and adaptive immune cells to inflammatory sites, that contributes to the pathological process of related brain diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, depression, and stroke. Flavonoids, as a species of important natural compounds, have been widely revealed to alleviate neuroinflammation by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory mediators, elevating the secretion of anti-inflammatory factors, and modulating the polarization of microglia and astrocyte, mainly via suppressing the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome, as well as NF-κB, MAPK, and JAK/STAT pathways, promoting Nrf2, AMPK, BDNF/CREB, Wnt/β-Catenin, PI3k/Akt signals and SIRT1-mediated HMGB1 deacetylation. This review will provide the latest and comprehensive knowledge on the therapeutic benefits and mechanisms of natural flavonoids in neuroinflammation, and the natural flavonoids might be developed into food supplements or lead compounds for neuroinflammation-associated brain disorders.

The pathogenesis and treatment mechanism of Parkinson's disease from the perspective of traditional Chinese medicine

BACKGROUND

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease with no treatment currently available to modify its progression. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has gained attention for its unique theoretical basis and clinical effects. Many studies have reported on the clinical effects and pharmacological mechanisms of Chinese herbs in PD. However, few studies have focused on the treatment mechanisms of anti-PD TCM drugs from the perspective of TCM itself.

PURPOSE

To elaborate the treatment mechanisms of anti-PD TCM drugs in the perspective of TCM.

METHODS

We performed a literature survey using traditional books of Chinese medicine and online scientific databases including PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), and others up to July 2021.

RESULTS

TCM theory states that PD is caused by a dysfunction of the zang-fu organs (liver, spleen, kidney, and lung) and subsequent pathogenic factors (wind, fire, phlegm, and blood stasis). Based on the pathogenesis, removing pathogenic factors and restoring visceral function are two primary treatment principles for PD in TCM. The former includes dispelling wind, clearing heat, resolving phlegm, and promoting blood circulation, while the latter involves nourishing the liver and kidney and strengthening the spleen. The anti-PD mechanisms of the active ingredients of TCM compounds and herbs at different levels include anti-apoptosis, anti-inflammation, and anti-oxidative stress, as well as the restoration of mitochondrial function and the regulation of autophagy and neurotransmitters.

CONCLUSION

Chinese herbs and prescriptions can be used to treat PD by targeting multiple pharmacological mechanisms.

Pharmacological Actions, Molecular Mechanisms, Pharmacokinetic Progressions, and Clinical Applications of Hydroxysafflor Yellow A in Antidiabetic Research

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), a nutraceutical compound derived from safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), has been shown as an effective therapeutic agent in cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and diabetes. Our previous study showed that the effect of HSYA on high-glucose-induced podocyte injury is related to its anti-inflammatory activities via macrophage polarization. Based on the information provided on PubMed, Scopus and Wanfang database, we currently aim to provide an updated overview of the role of HSYA in antidiabetic research from the following points: pharmacological actions, molecular mechanisms, pharmacokinetic progressions, and clinical applications. The pharmacokinetic research of HSYA has laid foundations for the clinical applications of HSYA injection in diabetic nephropathy, diabetic retinopathy, and diabetic neuropathy. The application of HSYA as an antidiabetic oral medicament has been investigated based on its recent oral delivery system research. In vivo and in vitro pharmacological research indicated that the antidiabetic activities of HSYA were based mainly on its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms via JNK/c-jun pathway, NOX4 pathway, and macrophage differentiation. Further anti-inflammatory exploration related to NF-κB signaling, MAPK pathway, and PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway might deserve attention in the future. The anti-inflammatory activities of HSYA related to diabetes and diabetic complications will be a highlight in our following research.

Effects of hydroxysafflor yellow A on rats with collagen-induced arthritis

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) from safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) possesses several medicinal properties. However, it is unknown whether HSYA is effective in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Hence, we investigated the effects of HSYA on the inflammation and synovial damage in rats with collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) by subjecting them to treatment with different doses of HSYA. Our results revealed that HSYA could significantly reduce paw swelling, pathological manifestations, and serum cytokine levels in rats with CIA. The HSYA-treated groups showed increased antioxidant enzyme activity in the serum and decreased expression of inflammatory mediators in the synovial tissues. Furthermore, HSYA treatment inhibited extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signalling pathway activation. Notably, the highest dose of HSYA (20 mg/kg) exhibited the best effects against RA symptoms. Therefore, our findings suggest that HSYA alleviates the inflammatory response and synovial damage in rats with CIA by inhibiting the ERK signalling pathway.

Design Space Calculation and Continuous Improvement Considering a Noise Parameter: A Case Study of Ethanol Precipitation Process Optimization for Carthami Flos Extract

The optimization of process parameters in the pharmaceutical industry is often carried out according to the Quality by Design (QbD) concept. QbD also emphasizes that continuous improvement should be performed in life cycle management. Process parameters that are difficult to control in actual production can be regarded as noise parameters. In this study, based on the QbD concept, the ethanol precipitation process of Carthami Flos extract was optimized, considering a noise parameter. The density of the concentrated extract, ethanol concentration, the volume ratio of ethanol to concentrated extract, stirring time after ethanol addition, and refrigeration temperature were selected as critical process parameters (CPPs), using a definitive screening design. The mathematical models among CPPs and evaluation indicators were established. Considering that the refrigeration temperature of industrial ethanol precipitation is often difficult to control with seasonal changes, refrigeration temperature was treated as a noise parameter. A calculation method for the design space in the presence of the noise parameter was proposed. The design space was calculated according to the probability of reaching the standards of evaluation indicators. Controlling parameters within the design space was expected to reduce the influence of noise parameter fluctuations on the quality of the ethanol precipitation supernatant. With more data obtained, the design space was updated. In industry, it is also recommended to adopt a similar idea: that is, continuing to collect industrial data and regularly updating mathematical models, which can further update the design space and make it more stable and reliable.

The Prognostic Significance of Anisomycin-Activated Phospho-c-Jun NH2-Terminal Kinase (p-JNK) in Predicting Breast Cancer Patients' Survival Time

This study aims to investigate the prognostic significance of p-JNK in breast cancer patients receiving neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT) and analyze the relationship between anisomycin, p-JNK. A total of 104 breast cancer patients had NACT were enrolled in this study. The western blot and immunohistochemistry assays were used to determine the protein expressions of p-JNK in human breast cancer cell lines and patients’ cancer tissues. The chi-square test and Fisher’s exact test were adopted to gauge the associations between breast cancer and clinicopathological variables by p-JNK expression, whereas the univariate and multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to analyze the prognostic value of p-JNK expression. The Kaplan-Meier plots and the log-rank test were adopted to determine patients’ disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS). Findings indicated that the p-JNK expression had prognostic significance in univariate and multivariate Cox regression survival analyses. Results of log-rank methods showed that: (1) the mean DFS and OS times in patients with high p-JNK expression were significantly longer than those in patients with low p-JNK expression (χ² = 5.908, P = 0.015 and χ² = 6.593, P = 0.010, respectively). p-JNK expression is a significant prognostic factor that can effectively predict the survival in breast cancer patients receiving NACT. Treatment with the JNK agonist anisomycin can induce apoptosis, lead to increased p-JNK expression and decreased p-STAT3 expression. Moreover, the p-JNK expression was inversely correlated with p-STAT3 expression.

Hydroxysafflor Yellow A: A Systematical Review on Botanical Resources, Physicochemical Properties, Drug Delivery System, Pharmacokinetics, and Pharmacological Effects

Hydroxysafflower yellow A (HSYA), as a principal natural ingredient extracted from safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), has significant pharmacological activities, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant, and anticancer effects. However, chemical instability and low bioavailability have been severely hampering the clinical applications of HSYA during the treatment of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease. Therefore, this present review systematically summarized the materials about HSYA, including acquisition methods, extraction and detection methods, pharmacokinetics, pharmacological effects and molecular mechanism, especially focus on the possible causes and resolutions about the chemical instability and low bioavailability of HSYA, in order to provide relatively comprehensive basic data for the related research of HSYA.