Novel sulphonamide benzoquinazolinones as dual EGFR/HER2 inhibitors, apoptosis inducers and radiosensitizers

Sulfonamides as anticancer agents: A brief review on sulfonamide derivatives as inhibitors of various proteins overexpressed in cancer

Sulfonamides have gained prominence as versatile agents in cancer therapy, effectively targeting a spectrum of cancer-associated enzymes. This review provides an extensive exploration of their multifaceted roles in cancer biology. Sulfonamides exhibit adaptability by acting as tyrosine kinase inhibitors, disrupting pivotal signaling pathways in cancer progression. Moreover, they disrupt pH regulation mechanisms in cancer cells as carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, inhibiting growth, and survival. Sulfonamides also serve as aromatase inhibitors, interfering with estrogen synthesis in hormone-driven cancers. Inhibition of matrix metalloproteinases presents an opportunity to impede cancer cell invasion and metastasis. Additionally, their emerging role as histone deacetylase inhibitors offers promising prospects in epigenetic-based cancer therapies. These diverse roles underscore sulfonamides as invaluable tools for innovative anti-cancer treatments, warranting further exploration for enhanced clinical applications and patient outcomes.

Utility of sulfachloropyridazine in the synthesis of novel anticancer agents as antiangiogenic and apoptotic inducers

In a search for new anticancer agents with better activity and selectivity, the present work described the synthesis of several new series of sulfachloropyridazine hybrids with thiocarbamates 3a-e, thioureids 4a-h, 5a-e and 4-substituted sulfachloropyridazines 6a, b, 7a, b and 8. The synthesized compounds were screened in vitro against a panel of 60 cancer cell lines in one dose assay. The most potent derivatives 3a, 3c, 4c, 4d, 5e, 7a and 7b were tested for their antiangiogenic activity by measuring their ability to inhibit VEGFR-2. The most potent compounds in VEGFR-2 inhibitory assay were further evaluated for their ability to inhibit PDGFR. In addition, the ability of 4c compound to inhibit cell migration on HUVEC cells and cell cycle effect on UO-31 cells has been studied. The pro-apoptotic effect of compound 4c was studied by the evaluation of caspase-3, Bax and BCl-2. Alternatively, the IC50 of compounds 3a, 3c, 4c, 5e, 7a and 7b against certain human cancer cell lines were determined. Re-evaluation in combination with γ-radiation was carried out for compounds 4c, 5e and 7b to study the possible synergistic effect on cytotoxicity. Docking studies of the most active compounds were performed to give insights into the binding mode within VEGFR-2 active site.

Quinazoline sulfonamide derivatives targeting MicroRNA-34a/MDM4/p53 apoptotic axis with radiosensitizing activity

Aim: New quinazoline benzenesulfonamide hybrids 4a-n were synthesized to determine their cytotoxicity and effect on the miR-34a/MDM4/p53 apoptotic pathway. Materials & methods: Cytotoxicity against hepatic, breast, lung and colon cancer cell lines was estimated using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Results: Compound 4d was the most potent against HepG2 and MCF-7 cancer cells, with potential apoptotic activity verified by a significant upregulation of miR-34a and p53 gene expressions. The apoptotic effect of 4d was further investigated and showed downregulation of miR-21, VEGF, STAT3 and MDM4 gene expression. Conclusion: The anticancer and apoptotic activities of 4d were enhanced post irradiation by a single dose of 8 Gy γ-radiation. Docking analysis demonstrated a valuable affinity of 4d toward VEGFR2 and MDM4 active sites.

A review on potential heterocycles for the treatment of glioblastoma targeting receptor tyrosine kinases

Glioblastoma, the most aggressive form of brain tumor, poses significant challenges in terms of treatment success and patient survival. Current treatment modalities for glioblastoma include radiation therapy, surgical intervention, and chemotherapy. Unfortunately, the median survival rate remains dishearteningly low at 12-15 months. One of the major obstacles in treating glioblastoma is the recurrence of tumors, making chemotherapy the primary approach for secondary glioma patients. However, the efficacy of drugs is hampered by the presence of the blood-brain barrier and multidrug resistance mechanisms. Consequently, considerable research efforts have been directed toward understanding the underlying signaling pathways involved in glioma and developing targeted drugs. To tackle glioma, numerous studies have examined kinase-downstream signaling pathways such as RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK-MPAK. By targeting specific signaling pathways, heterocyclic compounds have demonstrated efficacy in glioma therapeutics. Additionally, key kinases including phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), serine/threonine kinase, cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase (CTK), receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) and lipid kinase (LK) have been considered for investigation. These pathways play crucial roles in drug effectiveness in glioma treatment. Heterocyclic compounds, encompassing pyrimidine, thiazole, quinazoline, imidazole, indole, acridone, triazine, and other derivatives, have shown promising results in targeting these pathways. As part of this review, we propose exploring novel structures with low toxicity and high potency for glioma treatment. The development of these compounds should strive to overcome multidrug resistance mechanisms and efficiently penetrate the blood-brain barrier. By optimizing the chemical properties and designing compounds with enhanced drug-like characteristics, we can maximize their therapeutic value and minimize adverse effects. Considering the complex nature of glioblastoma, these novel structures should be rigorously tested and evaluated for their efficacy and safety profiles.

Immune modulation in malignant pleural effusion: from microenvironment to therapeutic implications

Immune microenvironment and immunotherapy have become the focus and frontier of tumor research, and the immune checkpoint inhibitors has provided novel strategies for tumor treatment. Malignant pleural effusion (MPE) is a common end-stage manifestation of lung cancer, malignant pleural mesothelioma and other thoracic malignancies, which is invasive and often accompanied by poor prognosis, affecting the quality of life of affected patients. Currently, clinical therapy for MPE is limited to pleural puncture, pleural fixation, catheter drainage, and other palliative therapies. Immunization is a new direction for rehabilitation and treatment of MPE. The effusion caused by cancer cells establishes its own immune microenvironment during its formation. Immune cells, cytokines, signal pathways of microenvironment affect the MPE progress and prognosis of patients. The interaction between them have been proved. The relevant studies were obtained through a systematic search of PubMed database according to keywords search method. Then through screening and sorting and reading full-text, 300 literatures were screened out. Exclude irrelevant and poor quality articles, 238 literatures were cited in the references. In this study, the mechanism of immune microenvironment affecting malignant pleural effusion was discussed from the perspectives of adaptive immune cells, innate immune cells, cytokines and molecular targets. Meanwhile, this study focused on the clinical value of microenvironmental components in the immunotherapy and prognosis of malignant pleural effusion.

Development of new TAK-285 derivatives as potent EGFR/HER2 inhibitors possessing antiproliferative effects against 22RV1 and PC3 prostate carcinoma cell lines

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) protein tyrosine kinases co-expressed in various cancers such as ovarian, breast, colon, and prostate subtypes. Herein, new TAK-285 derivatives (9a-h) were synthesised, characterised, and biologically evaluated as dual EGFR/HER2 inhibitors. Compound 9f exhibited IC₅₀ values of 2.3 nM over EGFR and 234 nM over HER2, which is 38-fold of staurosporine and 10-fold of TAK-285 over EGFR. Compound 9f also showed high selectivity profile when tested over a small kinase panel. Compounds 9a-h showed IC₅₀ values in the range of 1.0-7.3 nM and 0.8-2.8 nM against PC3 and 22RV1 prostate carcinoma cell lines, respectively. Cell cycle analysis, apoptotic induction, molecular docking, dynamics, and MM-GBSA studies confirmed the plausible mechanism(s) of compound 9f as a potent EGFR/HER2 dual inhibitor with an effective antiproliferative action against prostate carcinoma.

New quinazoline sulfonamide derivatives as potential anticancer agents: Identifying a promising hit with dual EGFR/VEGFR-2 inhibitory and radiosensitizing activity

Herein, we report the synthesis of a series of new quinazoline sulfonamide conjugates 2-16 and their evaluation as potential anticancer agents via dual targeting of EGFRT790M and VEGFR-2. The newly synthesized compounds were designed based on the structure requirements of the target receptors and were confirmed using spectral data. The compounds were evaluated for their cytotoxicity against four cancer cell lines (HepG2, MCF-7, HCT116 and A549) using MTT assay. The most active compounds were further evaluated for their inhibitory activity against EGFRT790M and VEGFR-2. Compound 15 showed the most significant cytotoxic activity with IC50 = 0.0977 µM against MCF-7 and the most potent inhibitory activity against both EGFR and VEGFR with IC50 = 0.0728 and 0.0523 µM, respectively. Compound 15 was able to induce apoptosis in MCF-7 cells and cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase. The relative safety profile of 15 was assessed using HEK-293 normal cell line and an ADMET profile was carried out. Radiosensitizing evaluation of 15 proved its significant ability to sensitize the cancer cell to the effect of radiation after being subjected to a single dose of 8 Gy gamma irradiation. Molecular docking studies revealed that 15 could bind to the ATP-binding site of EGF and VEGF receptors, inhibiting their activity.

Design, Synthesis, Anticancer Evaluation and Molecular Modeling Studies of New Thiazolidinone-Benzoate Scaffold as EGFR Inhibitors, Cell Cycle Interruption and Apoptosis Inducers in HepG2

Synthesis of new anticancer candidates with protein kinases inhibitory potency is a major goal of pharmaceutical science and synthetic research. This current work represents the synthesis of a series of substituted benzoate-thiazolidinones. Most prepared thiazolidinones were evaluated in vitro for their potential anticancer activity against three cell lines by MTT assay, and they found to be more effective against cancer cell lines with no harm toward normal cells. Thiazolidinones 5 c and 5 h were further evaluated to be kinase inhibitors against EGFR showing effective inhibitory impact (with IC50 value; 0.2±0.009 and 0.098±0.004 μM, for 5 c and 5 h, respectively). Furthermore, 5 c and 5 h have effects on cell cycle and apoptosis induction capability in HepG2 cell lines by DNA-flow cytometry analysis and annexin V-FITC apoptosis assay, respectively. The results showed that they have effect of disrupting the cell cycle and causing cell mortality by apoptosis in the treated cells. Moreover, molecular docking studies showed better binding patterns for 5 c and 5 h with the active site of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) protein kinase (PDB code 1M17). Finally, toxicity risk and physicochemical characterization by Osiris method was performed on most of the compounds, revealing excellent properties as possible drugs.

Novel iodoquinazolinones bearing sulfonamide moiety as potential antioxidants and neuroprotectors

In a search for new antioxidants, a set of new iodoquinazolinone derivatives bearing benzenesulfonamide moiety and variable acetamide pharmacophores 5-17 were designed and synthesized. The structures of the synthesized compounds were confirmed based on spectral data. Compounds 5-17 were screened using in vitro assay for their antioxidant potential and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory activity. The 2-(6-iodo-4-oxo-3-(4-sulfamoylphenyl)-3,4-dihydroquinazolin-2-ylthio)-N-(pyrazin-2-yl) acetamide 14 was the most active scaffold with potent AChE inhibitory activity. Compound 14 showed relative safety with a median lethal dose of 300 mg/kg (LD50 = 300 mg/kg), in an acute toxicity study. The possible antioxidant and neuroprotective activities of 14 were evaluated in irradiated mice. Compound 14 possessed in vivo AChE inhibitory activity and was able to modify the brain neurotransmitters. It was able to cause mitigation of gamma radiation-induced oxidative stress verified by the decline in Myeloperoxidase (MPO) and increase of glutathione (GSH) levels. Also, 14 restored the alterations in behavioral tests. Molecular docking of 14 was performed inside MPO and AChE active sites and showed the same binding interactions as that of the co-crystallized ligands considering the binding possibilities and energy scores. These findings would support that 14 could be considered a promising antioxidant with a neuromodulatory effect.

Secreted phosphoprotein 1 exacerbates renal ischemia-reperfusion injury by inhibiting PI3K/AKT signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Renal ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is a prevalent reason for acute kidney injury and a key clinical issue for patients under anesthesia and about to have surgery. We aim to investigate the Secreted phosphoprotein 1 (SPP1) role in renal IRI and the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

Using Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database helped in analyzing the SPP1 expression in renal IRI. We established two models, a mouse renal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) besides a hypoxia-reoxygenation (H/R) HK-2 cell. Renal tubular lesions were measured using H&E staining. Depending on the TUNEL assay, immunohistochemistry, qRT-PCR, as well as western blot, we applied the assessment of apoptosis and apoptosis-associated protein levels. At the same time, a western blot was performed for assessing PI3K/AKT pathway-associated proteins.

RESULTS

GEO data and experimental validation revealed elevated SPP1 content in the kidney tissues of renal I/R mice more than in sham mice. In vitro and in vivo studies revealed an increase in cell apoptosis due to SPP1 overexpression, but the opposite is true when SPP1 is silenced. SPP1 downregulation led to high p-PI3K and p-AKT protein levels, and the LY294002 application inhibited SPP1 inhibition-mediated anti-apoptotic effect CONCLUSION: Taken together, SPP1 exacerbates renal IRI in vivo and in vitro via promoting programmed cell death by inhibiting PI3K/AKT signaling pathway.

Quinazolinone derivatives as new potential CDK4/6 inhibitors, apoptosis inducers and radiosensitizers for breast cancer

Background: Targeting CDK4/6 has advanced breast cancer treatment. Herein, new quinazolinones were synthesized with acetamide linkers as potential anti-breast cancer agents. Methods & results: In vitro cytotoxic evaluation on human breast cancer cell lines (MCF7 and MDA-MB-231) identified 1,3-benzodioxole (5d) to be of the highest potency. It showed good inhibitory activity on CDK4/6. Compound 5d arrested the cell cycle at the G1-phase, caused induction of early and late apoptosis in an Annexin V-FITC assay, led to an increase in the level of caspase-3 and upregulated Bax expression and downregulated Bcl-2 in MCF7 cells. Compound 5d showed good radiosensitizing activity when combined with a single dose of 8-Gy γ-radiation. Conclusion: This study introduces quinazolinone scaffolds as new CDK4/6 inhibitors for breast cancer.

Anticancer Activities of Tetrasubstituted Imidazole-Pyrimidine-Sulfonamide Hybrids as Inhibitors of EGFR Mutants

A new series of tetrasubstituted imidazole derivatives carrying pyrimidine sulfonamide pharmacophores has been synthesized and evaluated for their anticancer activities. In-vitro screening of these hybrids against a full 60-cell-line panel at a single dose of 10 μM showed significant growth inhibition of up to 95 %. The most active compound showed in-vitro anticancer activities against (i) abnormal HER2 and (ii) two mutants for EGFR. Apoptotic gene expression revealed that lead compounds induced MCF-7 cell line apoptosis together with considerable change in the Bax/Bcl-2 expression ratio. One lead compound led to a significant cell-cycle S-phase arrest, while another blocked the cell cycle at G1/S-phase causing the accumulation of cells. Docking analysis of these two hybrids adopted the orientation and binding interactions with a higher liability to enter the active side pocket of HER2, L858R, and T790 M, preferable to that of co-crystallized ligands. Modelling simulation was consistent with the acquired biological evaluation.

Significant pharmacological activities of benzoquinazolines scaffold

Benzoquinazolines, the essential constituents of numerous well-known heterocyclic systems, have occupied a prominent position and played a significant part in the synthesis of various pharmaceutical compounds. The wide range of pharmacological effects attributed to benzoquinazolines has been the subject of extensive study. These include their roles as anticancer, antimicrobial, anti-monoamine oxidase, anticonvulsant, antiviral, antinociceptive, antioxidant, antineoplastic, antituberculosis, antiplatelet, and antiphlogistic agents. This work provides an attempt at a literature review of the pharmacological activities of benzoquinazoline derivatives, including an up-to-date account of recent research findings, and suggests avenues for future exploration in the pursuit of more potent and specific analogues for a wide range of biological targets using this platform.

Antimicrobial, anticancer and immunomodulatory potential of new quinazolines bearing benzenesulfonamide moiety

Sulfonamides are privileged candidates with potent anti-methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) activity and could replenish the MRSA antibiotic pipeline. The initial screening of a series of quinazolinone benzenesulfonamide derivatives 5-18 against multidrug-resistant bacterial and fungal strains revealed their potent activity. The promising compounds were conjugated with ZnONPs to study the effect of nanoparticle formation on the antimicrobial, cytotoxic and immunomodulatory activity. Compounds 5, 11, 16 and 18 revealed promising antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities with superior safety profiles and enhanced activity upon nanoformulation. The immunomodulatory potential of compounds 5, 11, 16 and 18 was assessed. Compounds 5 and 11 demonstrated an increase in spleen and thymus weight and boosted the activation of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T lymphocytes, confirming their promising antimicrobial, cytotoxic and immunomodulatory activity.

Privileged Scaffolds in Drug Discovery against Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor 2 for Cancer Treatment

HER2 is the membrane receptor tyrosine kinase showing overexpression in several human malignancies, particularly breast cancer. HER2 overexpression causes the activation of Ras- MAPK and PI3K/Akt/ NF-κB cellular signal transduction pathways that lead to cancer development and progression. HER2 is, therefore, presumed as one of the key targets for the development of tumor-specific therapies. Several preclinical have been developed that function by inhibiting the HER2 tyrosine kinase activity through the prevention of the dimerization process. Most HER2 inhibitors act as ATP competitors and prevent the process of phosphorylation, and abort the cell cycle progression and proliferation. In this review, the clinical drug candidates and potent pre-clinical newly developed molecules are described, and the core chemical scaffolds typically responsible for anti-HER2 activity are deciphered. In addition, the monoclonal antibodies that are either used in monotherapy or in combination therapy against HER2-positive cancer are briefly described. The identified key moieties in this study could result in the discovery of more effective HER2-targeted anticancer drug molecules and circumvent the development of resistance by HER2-specific chemotherapeutics in the future.

Emerging strategies to overcome resistance to third-generation EGFR inhibitors

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), the receptor for members of the epidermal growth factor family, regulates cell proliferation and signal transduction; moreover, EGFR is related to the inhibition of tumor cell proliferation, angiogenesis, invasion, metastasis, and apoptosis. Therefore, EGFR has become an important target for the treatment of cancer, including non-small cell lung cancer, head and neck cancer, breast cancer, glioma, cervical cancer, and bladder cancer. First- to third-generation EGFR inhibitors have shown considerable efficacy and have significantly improved disease prognosis. However, most patients develop drug resistance after treatment. The challenge of overcoming intrinsic and acquired resistance in primary and recurrent cancer mediated by EGFR mutations is thus driving the search for alternative strategies in the design of new therapeutic agents. In view of resistance to third-generation inhibitors, understanding the intricate mechanisms of resistance will offer insight for the development of more advanced targeted therapies. In this review, we discuss the molecular mechanisms of resistance to third-generation EGFR inhibitors and review recent strategies for overcoming resistance, new challenges, and future development directions.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of a series of dianilinopyrimidines as EGFR inhibitors

This paper described our efforts to develop dianilinopyrimidines as novel EGFR inhibitors. All the target compounds were tested for inhibitory effects against wild type EGFR (EGFR^wt) and three tumour cells, including A549, PC-3, and HepG2. Some of the compounds performed well in antitumor activities. Especially, compound 4c 2-((2-((4-(3-fluorobenzamido)phenyl)amino)-5-(trifluoromethyl) pyrimidin-4-yl)amino)-N-methylthiophene-3-carboxamide showed higher anti-tumour activities than Gefitinib. The IC₅₀ values of compound 4c against A549, PC-3, and HepG2. reached 0.56 μM, 2.46 μM, and 2.21 μM, respectively. In addition, further studies indicated that compound 4c could induce apoptosis against A549 cells and arrest A549 cells in the G2/M phase. Molecular docking studies showed that compound 4c could closely interact with EGFR. Generally, compound 4c was the potential for developing into an anti-tumour drug.

Synthesis, molecular modelling and QSAR study of new N-phenylacetamide-2-oxoindole benzensulfonamide conjugates as carbonic anhydrase inhibitors with antiproliferative activity

In continuation of our previous studies to optimise potent carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, two new series of isatin N-phenylacetamide based sulphonamides were synthesised and screened for their human (h) carbonic anhydrase (EC 4.2.1.1) inhibitory activities against four isoforms hCA I, hCA II, hCA IX and hCA XII. The indole-2,3-dione derivative 2h showed the most effective inhibition profile against hCAI and hCA II (K_I = 45.10, 5.87 nM) compared to acetazolamide (AAZ) as standard inhibitor. Moreover, 2h showed appreciable inhibition activity against the tumour-associated hCA XII, similar to AAZ showing K_I of 7.91 and 5.70 nM, respectively. The analogs 3c and 3d showed good cytotoxicity effects, and 3c revealed promising selectivity towards lung cell line A549. Molecular docking was carried out for 2h and 3c to predict their binding conformations and affinities towards the hCA I, II, IX and XII isoforms.

A medicinal chemist's perspective towards structure activity relationship of heterocycle based anti-cancer agents

AIM

To describe structure activity relationship of heterocyclic derivatives with multi-targeted anticancer activity.

OBJECTIVES

With the following goals in mind, this review tries to describe significant recent advances in the medicinal chemistry of heterocycle-based compounds: (1) To shed light on recent literature focused on heterocyclic derivatives' anticancer potential; (2) To discuss recent advances in the medicinal chemistry of heterocyclic derivatives, as well as their biological implications for cancer eradication; (3) To summarise the comprehensive correlation of structure activity relationship (SAR) with pharmacological outcomes in cancer therapy.

BACKGROUND

Cancer remains one of the major serious health issues devastating the world today. Cancer is a complex disease in which improperly altered cells proliferate at an uncontrolled, rapid, and severe rate. Variables such as poor dietary habits, high stress, age, and smoking, can all contribute to the development of cancer. Cancer can affect almost any organ or tissue, although the brain, breast, liver, and colon are the most frequently affected organs. From several years, surgical operations and irradiation are in use along with chemotherapy as a primary treatment of cancer but still effective treatment of cancer remains a huge challenge. Chemotherapy is now one of the most effective strategies to eradicate cancer, although it has been shown to have a number of cytotoxic and unfavourable effects on normal cells. Despite all of these cancer treatments, there are several other targets for anticancer drugs. Cancer can be effectively eradicated by focusing on these targets, which include both cell-specific and receptor-specific targets such as tyrosine kinase receptors (TKIs). Heterocyclic scaffolds also have a variety of applications in drug development and are a common moiety in the pharmaceutical, agrochemical, and textile industries.

METHODS

The association between structural activity relationship data of many powerful compounds and their anticancer potential in vitro and in vivo has been studied. SAR of powerful heterocyclic compounds can also be generated using molecular docking simulations, as reported vastly in literature.

CONCLUSIONS

Heterocycles have a wide range of applications, from natural compounds to synthesised derivatives with powerful anticancer properties. To avoid cytotoxicity or unfavourable effects on normal mammalian cells due to a lack of selectivity towards the target site, as well as to reduce the occurrence of drug resistance, safer anticancer lead compounds with higher potency and lower cytotoxicity are needed. This review emphasizes on design and development of heterocyclic lead compounds with promising anticancer potential.

Dual target inhibitors based on EGFR: Promising anticancer agents for the treatment of cancers (2017-)

The EGFR family play a significant role in cell signal transduction and their overexpression is implicated in the pathogenesis of numerous human solid cancers. Inhibition of the EGFR-mediated signaling pathways by EGFR inhibitors is a widely used strategy for the treatment of cancers. In most cases, the EGFR inhibitors used in clinic were only effective when the cancer cells harbored specific activating EGFR mutations which appeared to preserve the ligand-dependency of receptor activation but altered the pattern of downstream signaling pathways. Moreover, cancer is a kind of multifactorial disease, and therefore manipulating a single target may result in treatment failure. Although drug combinations for the treatment of cancers proved to be successful, the use of two or more drugs concurrently still was a challenge in clinical therapy owing to various dose-limiting toxicities and drug-drug interactions caused by pharmacokinetic profiles changed. Therefore, a single drug targeting two or multiple targets could serve as an effective strategy for the treatment of cancers. In recent, drugs with diverse pharmacological effects have been shown to be more advantageous than combination therapies due to their lower incidences of side effects and more resilient therapies. Accordingly, dual target-single-agent strategy has become a popular field for cancer treatment, and researchers became more and more interest in the development of novel dual-target drugs in recent years. In this review, we briefly introduce the EGFR family proteins and synergisms between EGFR and other anticancer targets, and summarizes the development of potential dual target inhibitors based on wild-type and/or mutant EGFR for the treatment of solid cancers in the past five years. Additionally, the rational design and SARs of these dual target agents are also presented in detailed, which will lay a significant foundation for the further development of novel EGFR-based dual inhibitors with excellent druggability.

A systematic review: Molecular docking simulation of small molecules as anticancer non-small cell lung carcinoma drug candidates

Non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) is a type of lung cancer with the highest prevalence and mortality rate worldwide. Many cases of this type of cancer are overexpression on epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). The use of currently available EGFR inhibitors as one of the treatment options for NSCLC still shows various shortcomings, especially the high failure rate of therapy due to resistance. It is important to find NSCLC drug candidates with EGFR inhibitory activity. There are various published articles and it is prominent to draw evidence-based scientific conclusions as a basis of decision-making to select potential compounds for further research. Polymer matrix composites and ScienceDirect are used as a database for article screening. Research using molecular docking method targeted to EGFR with parameters of Gibbs energy and amino acid interactions between ligands and drug targets are included in inclusion criteria. Compounds that achieve docking parameters and have comparable activity to NSCLC guideline drugs are conscientiously ranked. There are only 11 compounds that achieved the docking parameters and had comparable EGFR inhibitory potential. Top-rated compounds include 1,3,5-trisubstituted pyrazoline (3c), 1,3,5-trisubstituted pyrazoline (6c), 1,3,5-trisubstituted pyrazoline (8d), N-(3,4-Dimethylphenyl)-2-[(4-oxo-3-(4-sulfamoylphenyl)-3,4-dihydrobenzo[g] quinazolin-2-yl) thio] acetamide. The top-rated compounds can be used and considered for further research processes.

Design, Synthesis and Molecular Modeling of Quinoline Based Derivatives as Anti-Breast Cancer Agents Targeting EGFR/AKT Signaling Pathway

Two series of quinoline-thiazole and quinoline-thiazolidinone hybrids were designed, synthesized and evaluated for their in vitro antitumor activity on MCF-7 breast cancer cell line. In comparison to lapatinib (IC₅₀ =4.69 µM), compounds 4b and 6b exhibited the best antiproliferative activity with IC₅₀ values of 33.19 and 5.35 µM, respectively. Although compound 6b showed higher cytotoxicity, compound 4b exhibited better inhibitory activity towards the EGFR pathway than compound 6b as represented by the significant reduction in the EGFR kinase activity and the levels of phosho-EGFR and phosho-AKT when compared to lapatinib as a reference standard. Moreover, compound 4b was capable of down-regulating the anti-apoptotic genes Bcl-2 and survivin and up-regulating the level of the pro-apoptotic gene BAX. Molecular modeling study was carried out to predict the binding interactions of both compounds into the target kinase. Finally, the physicochemical properties were investigated in silico as well.

Chimeric Antigen Receptor T-Cell Therapy in Lung Cancer: Potential and Challenges

Chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cell therapy has exhibited a substantial clinical response in hematological malignancies, including B-cell leukemia, lymphoma, and multiple myeloma. Therefore, the feasibility of using CAR-T cells to treat solid tumors is actively evaluated. Currently, multiple basic research projects and clinical trials are being conducted to treat lung cancer with CAR-T cell therapy. Although numerous advances in CAR-T cell therapy have been made in hematological tumors, the technology still entails considerable challenges in treating lung cancer, such as on−target, of−tumor toxicity, paucity of tumor-specific antigen targets, T cell exhaustion in the tumor microenvironment, and low infiltration level of immune cells into solid tumor niches, which are even more complicated than their application in hematological tumors. Thus, progress in the scientific understanding of tumor immunology and improvements in the manufacture of cell products are advancing the clinical translation of these important cellular immunotherapies. This review focused on the latest research progress of CAR-T cell therapy in lung cancer treatment and for the first time, demonstrated the underlying challenges and future engineering strategies for the clinical application of CAR-T cell therapy against lung cancer.

Epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors as potential anticancer agents: An update of recent progress

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a vital intermediate in cell signaling pathway including cell proliferation, angiogenesis, apoptosis, and metastatic spread and also having four divergent members with similar structural features, such as EGFR (HER1/ErbB1), ErbB2 (HER2/neu), ErbB3 (HER3), and ErbB4 (HER4). Despite this, clinically exploited inhibitors of EGFR (including erlotinib, lapatinib, gefitinib, selumetinib, etc.) are not specific thus provoking unenviable adverse effects. Some of the paramount obstacles to generate and develop new lead molecules of EGFR inhibitors are drug resistance, mutation, and also selectivity which inspire medicinal chemists to generate novel chemotypes. The discovery of therapeutic agents that inhibit the precise stage in tumorous cells such as EGFR is one of the chief successful targets in many cancer therapies, including lung and breast cancers. This review aims to compile the various recent progressions (2016-2021) in the discovery and development of diverse epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitors belonging to distinct structural classes like pyrazoline, pyrazole, imidazole, pyrimidine, coumarin, benzothiazole, etc. We have summarized preclinical and clinical data, structure-activity relationships (SAR) containing mechanistic and in silico studies to provide proposals for the design and invention of new EGFR inhibitors with therapeutic significance. The detailed progress of the work in the field will provide inexorable scope for the development of novel drug candidates with greater selectivity and efficacy.

Topomer-CoMFA proposed as a tool to construct dual EGFR/HER-2 models

Protein kinases (in this case, HER-2 and EGFR) are involved in cancer-related diseases. Some reports have shown unique CoMFA models using the sum of activities expressed as pIC₅₀ (-log IC₅₀), as the classical CoMFA technique would not be the best strategy to construct models for multitarget therapy considering that the molecular alignment will not be the same for different targets. An alternative for this problem is the use of Topomer-CoMFA, a variation of CoMFA, which does not require the alignment step in the generation of 3D models. In this study, we propose the combined use of the sum of activities and Topomer-CoMFA for the construction of a unique dual 3D model considering the inhibitory activities against EGFR and HER-2. For this, 88 compounds from the literature were divided into two groups: training (71) and test (17) sets. The biological activity of each compound, expressed as IC₅₀ for EGFR and HER-2, was transformed into pIC₅₀, summed, and used as the dependent variable in the Topomer-CoMFA analyses. The obtained model was considered statistically robust in the prediction of the dual activity of new compounds. Finally, based on the obtained model, we proposed structural modifications to some of the compounds used to improve the biological data. From the 3D model, we suggested new derivative compounds with improved biological activity for both targets. Therefore, the combination of the techniques proposed in this study proves to be a good strategy to construct better statistical models that can predict biological activities in multitarget systems.

Design, synthesis and anticancer evaluation of new 4-anilinoquinoline-3-carbonitrile derivatives as dual EGFR/HER2 inhibitors and apoptosis inducers

Dual targeting of EGFR/HER2 receptor is an attractive strategy for cancer therapy. Four series of 4-anilinoquinoline-3-carbonitrile derivatives were designed and prepared by introducing various functional groups, including a polar hydrophilic group (carboxylic acid), a heterocyclic substituent possessing polarity to some extent, and an unpolar hydrophobic phenyl portion, at the C-6 position of the quinoline skeleton. All of the prepared derivatives were screened for their inhibitory activities against EGFR /HER2 receptors and their antiproliferative activities against the SK-BR-3 and A431 cell lines. Compounds 6a, 6 g and 6d exhibited significant activities against the target cell lines. In particular, the antiproliferative activity of 6d (IC₅₀ = 1.930 μM) against SK-BR-3 was over 2-fold higher than that of neratinib (IC₅₀ = 3.966 μM), and comparable to that of Lapatinib (IC₅₀ = 2.737 μM). On the other hand, 6d (IC₅₀ = 1.893 μM) was more active than the reference drug Neratinib (IC₅₀ = 2.151 μM), and showed comparable potency to Lapatinib (IC₅₀ = 1.285 μM) against A431. Cell cycle analysis and apoptosis assays indicated that 6d arrests the cell cycle in the S phase, and it is a potent apoptotic inducer. Moreover, molecular docking exhibited the binding modes of compound 6d in EGFR and HER2 binding sites, respectively. Compound 6d can be considered as a candidate for further investigation as a more potent anticancer agent.

Biological evaluation, radiosensitizing activity and structural insights of novel halogenated quinazoline-sulfonamide conjugates as selective human carbonic anhydrases IX/XII inhibitors

A library of iodoquinazolinones endowed with benzenesulfonamide moiety was designed and synthesized as human carbonic anhydrase (hCA) inhibitors. Compounds 4-17 showed generally poor activity against the cytosolic hCA I and hCA II isoforms. Contrarily they were more potent and showed a variable spectrum of selectivity against the tumor-specific isoforms hCA IX and hCA XII. The 4-iodophenyl derivative 12 and the 4-pyridinyl derivative 15 were the most active and selective in this series against hCA IX and hCA XII isoforms with K_I of 18 and 9 nM, respectively. Compounds 12 and 15 were further screened for their cytotoxicity against MCF-7, HepG-2 and HCT-116 cancer cell lines besides WI38 and MCF-10A normal cell lines to determine their selectivity towards cancer cells. Compound 12 was selective towards HepG-2 and HCT-116 cell lines but less selective towards MCF-7. While compound 15 showed higher selectivity towards HepG-2 than HCT-116 and MCF-7 cell lines. The ability of compounds 12 and 15 to sensitize the cells against gamma irradiation's effect proved their potential radiosensitizing activity. Molecular docking analysis was carried out to discover the possible binding mode of the compounds within the active site of isoform hCA IX and XII. Compounds 12 and 15 revealed the probable fundamental interactions explaining the good activity and selectivity towards the tumor-specific isoforms.

Synthesis of some quinazolinones inspired from the natural alkaloid L-norephedrine as EGFR inhibitors and radiosensitizers

A set of quinazolinones synthesized by the aid of L-norephedrine was assembled to generate novel analogues as potential anticancer and radiosensitizing agents. The new compounds were evaluated for their cytotoxic activity against MDA-MB-231, MCF-7, HepG-2, HCT-116 cancer cell lines and EGFR inhibitory activity. The most active compounds 5 and 6 were screened against MCF-10A normal cell line and displayed lower toxic effects. They proved their relative safety with high selectivity towards MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line. Measurement of the radiosensitizing activity for 5 and 6 revealed that they could sensitize the tumour cells after being exposed to a single dose of 8 Gy gamma radiation. Compound 5 was able to induce apoptosis and arrest the cell cycle at the G2-M phase. Molecular docking of 5 and 6 in the active site of EGFR was performed to gain insight into the binding interactions with the key amino acids.

Design, synthesis and molecular modeling studies of 2-styrylquinazoline derivatives as EGFR inhibitors and apoptosis inducers

Herein, we report the synthesis of novel 2-substituted styrylquinazolines conjugated with aniline or sulfonamide moieties, anticipated to act as potent anticancer therapeutic agents through preferential EGFR inhibition. In doing so, all the synthesized compounds were screened for their in vitro anticancer activities (nine subpanels) at the National Cancer Institute (NCI), USA. The resulting two most active anticancer compounds (7b and 8c) were then chemically manipulated to investigate feasible derivatives (12a-e and 15a-d). MTT cytotoxicity, in vitro cell free EGFR and anti-proliferative activity against EGFR/ A549 cell line evaluation for the most active broadly spectrum candidates (7a/b, 8c/e, 12b and 15d) was conducted. Promising results were obtained for the styrylquinazoline-benzenesulfonamide derivative 8c (IC50 = 8.62 µM, 0.190 µM and = 79.25%), if compared to lapatanib (IC50 = 11.98 µM, 0.190 µM, and 79.25%), respectively. Moreover, its apoptotic induction potential was studied through cell cycle analysis, Annexin-V and caspase-3 activation assays. Results showed a clear cell arrest at G2/M phase, a late apoptotic increase (76 folds) and a fruitful caspase-3 expression change (8 folds), compared to the control. Finally, molecular docking studies of compounds 7a/b, 8c/e, 12b and 15d revealed proper fitting into the active site of EGFR with a low binding energy score for compound 8c (-13.19 Kcal/mole), compared to lapatanib (-14.54 Kcal/mole).

Identification of Quinazolinone Analogs Targeting CDK5 Kinase Activity and Glioblastoma Cell Proliferation

CDK5/p25 kinase plays a major role in neuronal functions, and is hyperactivated in several human cancers including glioblastoma and neurodegenerative pathologies such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. CDK5 therefore constitutes an attractive pharmacological target. Since the successful discovery and development of Roscovitine, several ATP-competitive inhibitors of CDK5 and peptide inhibitors of CDK5/p25 interface have been developed. However, these compounds suffer limitations associated with their mechanism of action and nature, thereby calling for alternative targeting strategies. To date, few allosteric inhibitors have been developed for successful targeting of protein kinases. Indeed, although this latter class of inhibitors are believed to be more selective than compounds targeting the active site, they have proven extremely difficult to identify in high throughput screens. By implementing a fluorescent biosensor that discriminates against ATP-pocket binding compounds to screen for allosteric inhibitors that target conformational activation of CDK5, we have identified a novel family of quinazolinones. Characterization of these hits and several of their derivatives revealed their inhibitory potential toward CDK5 kinase activity in vitro and to inhibit glioblastoma cell proliferation. The quinazolinone derivatives described in this study are the first small molecules reported to target CDK5 at a site other than the ATP pocket, thereby constituting attractive leads for glioblastoma therapeutics and providing therapeutic perspectives for neurodegenerative diseases. These compounds offer alternatives to conventional ATP-competitive inhibitors or peptides targeting CDK5/p25 interface with the potential of bypassing their limitations.

Iodoquinazolinones bearing benzenesulfonamide as human carbonic anhydrase I, II, IX and XII inhibitors: Synthesis, biological evaluation and radiosensitizing activity

In the present work, we report the design and synthesis of a set of iodinated quinazolinones carrying benzenesulfonamide moiety as carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) inhibitors. The target compounds showed promising inhibitory activity against the four examined human (h) CA isoforms; I, II, IX and XII. Compounds 4-18 displayed variable inhibition constants, ranging as follows: 7.6-782.8 nM for hCA I, 34.4-412.1 nM for hCA II, 29.1-2225.3 nM for hCA IX and 8.8-429.4 nM for hCA XII. Compound 9, the most potent against the tumor-specific CA IX/CA XII (KI = 29.1 and 8.8 nM) gives the possibility to evaluate its cytotoxicity and selectivity in vitro against HepG-2, HCT-116 and MCF-7 cancer cell lines. Compound 9 showed significant cytotoxicity against the tumor cell lines (IC50 = 1.78, 1.94 and 3.07 μM, respectively) and relatively lower toxicity against WI38 normal cell line. The radiosensitizing activity of compound 9 was evaluated and displayed an increase in the radiation-induced cell death in cancer cells after receiving a single dose of 8 Gy gamma radiation. Thus, radiation was able to enhance the antiproliferative activity of compound 9. Molecular docking of 9 into the active site of CA IX and XII revealed the key interactions that could explain its potent activity and selectivity towards these isoforms.

Radiomodulatory effect of a non-electrophilic NQO1 inducer identified in a screen of new 6, 8-diiodoquinazolin-4(3H)-ones carrying a sulfonamide moiety

Fifteen new quinazolinone derivatives bearing benzenesulfonamide moiety with variable acetamide tail were synthesized. The structures assigned to the products were concordant with the microanalytical and spectral data. Compounds 4-18 were screened for their ability to induce the antioxidant enzyme NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) in cells, a classical target for transcription factor nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). The 2-((6,8-diiodo-4-oxo-3-(4-sulfamoylphenyl)-3,4-dihydroquinazolin-2-yl)thio)-N-(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl) acetamide 15 showed the most potent NQO1 inducer activity in vitro. Compound 15 had low toxicity in mice (LD50 = 500 mg/kg). It also reduced the damaging effects of gamma radiation, as assessed by the levels of Nrf2, NQO1, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in liver tissues. In addition, compound 15 showed amelioration in the complete blood count of irradiated mice and enhanced survival over a period of 30 days following irradiation. Molecular docking of 15 inside the Nrf2-binding site of Kelch-like ECH associated protein 1 (Keap1), the main negative regulator of Nrf2, showed the same binding interactions as that of the co-crystallized ligand considering the binding possibilities and energy scores. These findings suggest that compound 15 could be considered as a promising antioxidant and radiomodulatory agent.

Novel scaffold hopping of potent benzothiazole and isatin analogues linked to 1,2,3-triazole fragment that mimic quinazoline epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors: Synthesis, antitumor and mechanistic analyses

A series of benzothiazole/isatin linked to 1,2,3-triazole moiety and terminal sulpha drugs 5a-e and 6a-e were synthesized and evaluated for cytotoxic activity against a panel of cancer cell lines. The novel compounds showed variable IC₅₀ range of activity and some of them were potent compared to reference drug. The promising compounds were subjected as postulated the mimicry proposal for quinazoline-based EGFR inhibitors for their inhibitory profile against EGFR TK enzyme. That data obtained revealed that most of these compounds were potent EGFR TK inhibitors at nanomolar concentrations. Among these, compounds 5a and 5b showed more potent activity on EGFR compared to erlotinib (IC₅₀ 103 and 104 versus 67.6 nM). Based upon the results, molecular docking analysis was performed on EGFR receptor and proved the strong contribution of fragments; benzothiazole, isatin, and triazole to the binding ATP pocket. When these selected compounds 5a and 5b were tested in an HepG2 model, they could effectively inhibited tumor growth, strongly induced cancer cell apoptosis, and suppressed cell cycle progression leading to DNA fragmentation. Well-DMET profile of the most active derivatives was presented and compared to the reference drugs. Taken together, we introduced novel triazole-sulpha drug hybrid for the first time as EGFR inhibitors and the results of our studies indicate that the newly discovered inhibitors have significant potential for anticancer treatment.

Novel quinazoline-based EGFR kinase inhibitors: A review focussing on SAR and molecular docking studies (2015-2019)

The over expression of EGFR has been recognized as the driver mechanism in the occurrence and progression of carcinomas such as lung cancer, breast cancer, pancreatic cancer, etcetera. EGFR receptor was thus established as an important target for the management of solid tumors. The occurrence of resistance caused as a result of mutations in EGFR has presented a formidable challenge in the discovery of novel inhibitors of EGFR. This has resulted in the development of three generations of EGFR TKIs. Newer mutations like C797S cause failure of Osimertinib and other EGFR TKIs belonging to the third-generation caused by the development of resistance. In this review, we have summarized the work done in the last five years to overcome the limitations of currently marketed drugs, giving structural activity relationships of quinazoline-based lead compounds synthesized and tested recently. We have also highlighted the shortcomings of the currently used approaches and have provided guidance for circumventing these limitations. Our review would help medicinal chemists streamline and guide their efforts towards developing novel quinazoline-based EGFR inhibitors.

Design, synthesis, biological evaluation, QSAR analysis and molecular modelling of new thiazol-benzimidazoles as EGFR inhibitors

Heterocyclic rings such as thiazole and benzimidazole are considered as privileged structures, since they constitute several FDA-approved drugs for cancer treatment. In this work, a new set of 2-(2-(substituted) hydrazinyl)-4-(1-methyl-1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl) thiazoles 4a-q were designed as epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitors and synthesized using concise synthetic methods. The new target compounds have been evaluated in vitro for their suppression activity against EGFR TK. Compounds 4n, 4h, 4i, 4a and 4d exhibited significant potency in comparison with erlotinib which served as a reference drug (IC50, 71.67-152.59 nM; IC50 erlotinib, 152.59 nM). Furthermore, MTT assay revealed that compounds 4j, 4a, 4f, 4h, 4n produced the most promising cytotoxic potency against the human breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) (IC50; 5.96-11.91 µM; IC50 erlotinib; 4.15 µM). Compound 4a showed promising activity as EGFR TK inhibitor as well as anti-breast cancer agent. In addition, 4a induced apoptotic effect and cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase preventing the mitotic cycle in MCF-7 cells. Moreover, 4a upregulated the oncogenic parameters; caspase-3, p53, Bax/Bcl-2 as well as it inhibited the level of PARP-1 enzyme. QSAR study was carried out for the new derivatives and it revealed the goodness of the models. Furthermore, molecular docking studies represented the binding modes of the promising compounds in the active pocket of EGFR.

Short communication for targeting natural compounds against HER2 kinase domain as potential anticancer drugs applying pharmacophore based molecular modelling approaches- part 2

Breast cancer is one of the common causes of death noticed in women globally. In order to find effective therapeutics, the current investigation has focussed on identifying candidate compounds for EGFR and HER2. Accordingly, the pharmacophore modelling approaches were adapted to identify two prospective compounds and were docked against the target 3RCD that is complexed with TAK-285 a known dual inhibitor. Focussing on the target 3RCD, our results have showed that the compounds have demonstrated a good binding affinity towards the target occupying the binding pocket. They have established key residue interactions with stable molecular dynamics simulation results. The Hit compounds have demonstrated a potential to penetrate the blood brain barrier thereby enriching their therapeutics towards breast cancer brain metastasis. Taken together, our findings propose two candidate compounds as EGFR/HER2 inhibitors that might serve as novel chemical spaces for designing and developing new inhibitors.