Different effects of long-term exposures to SO2 and NO2 air pollutants on asthma severity in young adults

The impact of outdoor pollution and extreme temperatures on asthma-related outcomes: A systematic review for the EAACI guidelines on environmental science for allergic diseases and asthma

Air pollution is one of the biggest environmental threats for asthma. Its impact is augmented by climate change. To inform the recommendations of the EAACI Guidelines on the environmental science for allergic diseases and asthma, a systematic review (SR) evaluated the impact on asthma-related outcomes of short-term exposure to outdoor air pollutants (PM2.5, PM10, NO2, SO2, O3, and CO), heavy traffic, outdoor pesticides, and extreme temperatures. Additionally, the SR evaluated the impact of the efficacy of interventions reducing outdoor pollutants. The risk of bias was assessed using ROBINS-E tools and the certainty of the evidence by using GRADE. Short-term exposure to PM2.5, PM10, and NO2 probably increases the risk of asthma-related hospital admissions (HA) and emergency department (ED) visits (moderate certainty evidence). Exposure to heavy traffic may increase HA and deteriorate asthma control (low certainty evidence). Interventions reducing outdoor pollutants may reduce asthma exacerbations (low to very low certainty evidence). Exposure to fumigants may increase the risk of new-onset asthma in agricultural workers, while exposure to 1,3-dichloropropene may increase the risk of asthma-related ED visits (low certainty evidence). Heatwaves and cold spells may increase the risk of asthma-related ED visits and HA and asthma mortality (low certainty evidence).

Causal relationship between outdoor atmospheric quality and pediatric asthma visits in hangzhou

Many air pollutants and climate variables have proven to be significantly associated with pediatric asthma and have worsened asthma symptoms. However, their exact causal effects remain unclear. We explored the causality between air pollutants, climate, and daily pediatric asthma patient visits with a short-term lag effect. Based on eight years of daily environmental data and daily pediatric asthma patient visits, Spearman correlation analysis was used to select the air pollutants and climate variables that correlated with daily pediatric asthma patient visits at any time (with a lag of 1-6 days). We regarded these environmental variables as treatments and built multiple- and single-treatment causal inference models using the Dowhy library (a Python library for causal inference by graphing the model, quantitatively evaluating causal effects, and validating the causal assumptions) to estimate the quantitative causal effect between these correlated variables and daily pediatric asthma patient visits in lag time. The multiple-treatment causal inference model was a model with 8 treatments (Visibility, Precipitation, PM₁₀, PM_2.5, SO₂, NO₂, AQI and CO), 1 outcome (daily pediatric asthma patients visits), and 5 confounders (Humidity, Temperature, Sea level pressure, wind speed and unobserved confounders "U"). Single-treatment causal inference models were 8 models, and each model has 1 treatment, 1 outcome and 12 confounders. Spearman correlation analysis showed that precipitation, wind speed, visibility, air quality index, PM_2.5, PM₁₀, SO₂, NO₂, and CO were significantly associated variables at all times (p < 0.05). The multiple-treatment model showed that pooled treatments had significant causality for the short-term lag (lag1-lag6; p < 0.05). Causality was mainly due to SO₂. In the single-treatment models, visibility, SO₂, NO₂, and CO exhibited significant causal effects at any one time (p < 0.05). SO₂ and CO exhibited stronger positive causal effects. The causal effect of SO₂ reached its maxima (causal effect = 11.41, p < 0.05) at lag5. The greatest causal effect of CO appeared at lag3 (causal effect = 10.67, p < 0.05). During the eight year-period, the improvements in SO₂, CO, and NO₂ in Hangzhou were estimated to reduce asthma visits by 8478.03, 3131.08, and 1341.39 per year, respectively. SO₂, NO₂, CO, and visibility exhibited causal effects on daily pediatric asthma patient visits; SO₂ was the most crucial causative variable with a relatively higher causal effect, followed by CO. Improvements in atmospheric quality in the Hangzhou area have effectively reduced the incidence of asthma.

Ab initio study of the adsorption of SO2 on single-atom Cu-decorated ZnO(0001) surface

CONTEXT

The World Health Organization has cataloged sulfur dioxide (SO₂) as harmful for the human health and the environment. It also contributes to generate acid rain, which affects the ecosystems. To reduce its negative effects, new strategies to control the emissions are required. New and engineered materials are investigated to detect, capture, and eradicate toxic gases from the environment. Zinc oxide is considered a promising candidate. Here, we investigate the Cu-decorated ZnO(0001) surfaces as a single-atom catalyst (SAC) to reduce SO₂ by first-principles calculations. We propose a two-step reduction mechanism. First, one of the S-O bonds is broken on the pristine surface, with a calculated activation energy of 14.76 kcal/mol, 1.84 kcal/mol larger than the one obtained in the Cu SAC. In the second step, the SO reduction is viable only for Cu SAC, with calculated activation energy of 29.28 kcal/mol. Our results point that Cu SAC improves the SO₂ reduction, pointing it as a potentially efficient device to eradicate such harmful pollutant from the environment.

METHODS

The calculations were performed using the density functional theory, as implemented in quantum ESPRESSO package. The exchange-correlation energy was calculated within the generalized gradient approximation with the Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhof parameterization. Van der Waals dispersion-corrected interactions were considered. Spin-polarization was considered for studying dangling bonds in transition states. The minimum energy pathways were calculated by using the climbing image nudged elastic band.

Improving people's health by burning low-pollution coal to improve air quality for thermal power generation

Eliminating the NOx emission after coal combustion is a critical task for thermal power plants to reduce threats to the human body, such as respiratory diseases, heart disease, lung disease and even lung cancer. To this end, various treatments have been taken to optimize, monitor and control the combustion process. However, optimizing the coal composition prior to combustion can further reduce possible NOx emissions. This topic was rarely discussed in the past. To fill this gap, this study proposes a fuzzy big data analytics approach. The proposed methodology combines recursive feature elimination, fuzzy c-means, XG Boost, support vector regression, random forests, decision trees and deep neural networks to predict post-combustion NOx emission based on coal composition and specification. Subsequently, additional treatments can be implemented to optimize boiler configuration and combustion conditions with pollution prevention equipment. In other words, the method proposed in this study is a kind of pretreatment. The proposed methodology has been applied to the real case of a thermal power plant in Taiwan. Experimental results showed that the prediction accuracy using the proposed methodology was significantly better than several existing methods. The forecasting error, measured in terms of root mean square error and mean absolute percentage error, was only 14.55 ppm and 8.9%, respectively.

Mortality Attributable to Ambient Air Pollution: A Review of Global Estimates

Since the publication of the first epidemiological study to establish the connection between long-term exposure to atmospheric pollution and effects on human health, major efforts have been dedicated to estimate the attributable mortality burden, especially in the context of the Global Burden of Disease (GBD). In this work, we review the estimates of excess mortality attributable to outdoor air pollution at the global scale, by comparing studies available in the literature. We find large differences between the estimates, which are related to the exposure response functions as well as the number of health outcomes included in the calculations, aspects where further improvements are necessary. Furthermore, we show that despite the considerable advancements in our understanding of health impacts of air pollution and the consequent improvement in the accuracy of the global estimates, their precision has not increased in the last decades. We offer recommendations for future measurements and research directions, which will help to improve our understanding and quantification of air pollution-health relationships.

Computational fluid dynamics-based optimal installation strategy of air purification system to minimize NOX exposure inside a public bus stop

At public bus stops, NO_X pollutants discharged by regularly stopping buses quickly accumulate, exposing waiting passengers to high levels of air pollutants, which creates a threat to public health. The environmental protection agency (EPA) presents air quality standards for NO_X, a significant pollutant that causes lung diseases such as asthma when exposed to the human body. To handle this problem, air purification systems are installed inside bus stops in many public places. However, it is challenging to maintain a low concentration of NO_X inside public bus stops due to the persistent inflow of bus exhaust gas. Therefore, it is crucial to design an optimal location for an air purification system to meet air environment standards for respiratory areas. This study proposed a computational fluid dynamics (CFD)-based optimal installation strategy for an air purification system to minimize NO_X exposure inside a public bus stop. The CFD model was developed to numerically analyze NO₂ exposure with the actual design value for a public bus stop in Ulsan, South Korea. The local NO₂ concentration was evaluated in the human breathing zone. The case study was performed according to the locations of the inlet and outlet of the air purification system. A transient CFD simulation was performed to analyze the effect of the air purification system on pollutants generated from the stationary bus by time flow in various cases. NO₂ concentration and exposure reduction effectiveness (ERE) were analyzed and compared for each case in the breathing zone. In the optimal case, the ERE of NO₂ was confirmed to be 35.9 %, and the NO₂ concentration according to the air quality standards of EPA could be maintained at 0.1 ppm or less. The theoretical framework proposed in this study can be generalized to design air purification systems for general external facilities.

Supervised Kohonen Self-Organizing Maps of Acute Asthma from Air Pollution Exposure

There are unanswered questions with regards to acute respiratory outcomes, particularly asthma, due to environmental exposures. In contribution to asthma research, the current study explored a computational intelligence paradigm of artificial neural networks (ANNs) called self-organizing maps (SOM). To train the SOM, air quality data (nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide and particulate matter), interpolated to geocoded addresses of asthmatics, were used with clinical data to classify asthma outcomes. Socio-demographic data such as age, gender and race were also used to perform the classification by the SOM. All pollutants and demographic traits appeared to be important for the correct classification of asthma outcomes. Age was more important: older patients were more likely to have asthma. The resultant SOM model had low quantization error. The study concluded that Kohonen self-organizing maps provide effective classification models to study asthma outcomes, particularly when using multidimensional data. SO₂ was concluded to be an important pollutant that requires strict regulation, particularly where frail subpopulations such as the elderly may be at risk.

Effect of Yijin-Tang, an Oriental Traditional Formula, on Allergic Responses Using an Ovalbumin-Induced Murine Asthma Model

Yijin-tang is an oriental traditional herb used to treat inflammatory diseases. In the present study, we investigated the protective effects of Yijin-tang water extract (YTE) using an ovalbumin- (OVA-) induced asthma model, focusing on the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of the herb. BALB/c mice were intraperitoneally injected with OVA on days 0 and 14 and then challenged with OVA on days 21, 22, and 23. The animals were orally administered YTE (200 and 400 mg/kg) from days 18 to 23, and this was found to significantly decrease airway hyperresponsiveness and release of inflammatory cells, cytokines, and OVA-specific immunoglobulin E in mice with asthma. In addition, YTE was associated with a marked reduction in airway inflammation and mucus production in lung tissue of mice with asthma. Furthermore, YTE suppressed the expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 and phosphorylation of ERK in the lungs, which in turn led to a reduction in inducible nitric oxide synthases and an elevation in reduced glutathione and heme oxygenase-1. In conclusion, YTE effectively suppressed allergic responses in mice with asthma and the effect was closely related to antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of the herb. Our results indicate that YTE may be a potential agent for the treatment of allergic asthma.

Association between cold spells and childhood asthma in Hefei, an analysis based on different definitions and characteristics

As the global climate continues to warm, there is an increased focus on heat, but the role of low temperatures on health has been overlooked, especially for developing countries. Methods We collected the admission data of childhood asthma in 2013-2016 from Anhui Provincial Children's Hospital, as well as meteorological data from the Meteorological Bureau for the study period and collected data of pollutants from 10 monitoring stations around Hefei city. Poisson's generalized additive model (GAM) combined with a distributed lag non-linear model (DLNM) was used to estimate the short-term effects of cold spell on childhood asthma in cold seasons (November to March). 16 definitions of cold spells were clearly compared, which combining 4 temperature indexes (daily minimum and mean temperature; daily minimum and mean apparent temperature), 2 temperature thresholds (2.5th and 5th) and 3 durations of at least 2-4 days. We then have an analysis of the modifying effect of characteristics of cold spells and individuals(gender and age), with a view to discovering the susceptible population to cold spell. Results There was significant association between cold spells and admission risk for childhood asthma. And the definition, in which daily minimum apparent temperature falls below 5th percentile for at least 3 consecutive days, produced the optimum model fit performance. Based on this optimal fit we found that, for the total population, the effect of cold spell lasted approximately five days (lag1-lag5), with the largest effect occurring in lag 3 (RR = 1.110; 95% CI: 1.052-1.170). In subgroup analysis, the cumulative effect of lag0-7 was higher in males and school-age children than in females and other age groups, respectively. In addition, we found that the effect of is higher as the duration increases. Conclusion This study suggests an association between cold spell and childhood asthma, and minimum AT may be a better indicator to define the cold spells. Boys and school-age children are more vulnerable to cold spell. And one of our very interesting findings is that if a cold spell lasts for several days, the impact of the cold spell on those later days is likely to be greater than that of the previous days. In conclusion, we should pay more attention to the protection of boys and school-aged children in our future public health protection and give more attention to those cold spells that last longer. Therefore, we recommend that schools and health authorities need to take targeted measures to reduce the risk of asthma in children during the cold spell.

Effects of ambient temperature and cold starts on excess NOx emissions in a gasoline direct injection vehicle

Studies have demonstrated that vehicles with gasoline direct injection (GDI) engines produce significantly higher emissions during a cold start than under hot-stabilized periods. A cold start is typically defined by the temperature of the engine or the catalytic converter; its extended effect on emissions, after the vehicle reaches the warm-up stage, has seldom been investigated. In this study, the influence of the post cold start period on nitrogen oxides (NO_x) emissions was evaluated using real-world measurements. Vehicle on-board diagnostic data, fuel consumption, and emissions of multiple pollutants were collected on a 2020 GDI sports utility vehicle equipped with a Portable Emission Measurement System (PEMS). A total of 31 trips, with two drives per day, were conducted along arterial roads and highways in Toronto, Canada. The results indicate that during the first trip of the day after an overnight soak, the average NO_x emission rate was 0.27 g/litre and 0.037 g/km, 384% and 299% higher than the emission rate on the second trip of the day. The amount of trip total NO_x emissions is positively associated with the length of the catalytic converter warm-up period with correlation coefficient 0.67. We also observe that the catalyst warm-up time is negatively correlated with ambient temperature, and a negative relationship between ambient temperature and NO_x emissions throughout the trip is depicted with correlation coefficient -0.44. The measured data reveal an extended effect of the cold start on NO_x emissions even after the temperatures of the engine coolant and catalyst reach a stable level.

A Cloud-connected NO2 and Ozone Sensor System for Personalized Pediatric Asthma Research and Management

This paper presents a cloud-connected indoor air quality sensor system that can be deployed to patients' homes to study personal microenvironmental exposure for asthma research and management. The system consists of multiple compact sensor units that can measure residential NO₂, ozone, humidity, and temperature at one-minute resolution and a cloud-based informatic system that acquires, stores, and visualizes the microenvironmental data in real-time. The sensor hardware can measure NO₂ as low as 10 ppb and ozone at 15 ppb. The cloud informatic system is implemented using open-source software on Amazon Web Service for easy deployment and scalability. This system was successfully deployed to pediatric asthma patients' homes in a pilot study. In this study, we discovered that some families had short-term NO₂ exposure higher than EPA's one-hour exposure limit (100 ppb), and NO₂ micro-pollution episodes often arise from natural gas appliance usage such as gas stove burning during cooking. By combining the personalized air pollutant exposure measurements with the physiological responses from monitoring devices, patient diaries, or medical records, this system can potentially enable novel asthma research and personalized asthma management.

Functionalized NU-1000 with an Iridium Organometallic Fragment: SO2 Capture Enhancement

A new material, MOF-type [Ir]@NU-1000, was accessed from the incorporation of the iridium organometallic fragment [Ir{κ³(P,Si,Si)PhP(o-C₆H₄CH₂SiⁱPr₂)₂}] into NU-1000. The new material incorporates less than 1 wt % of Ir(III) (molar ratio Ir to NU-1000, 1:11), but the heat of adsorption for SO₂ is significantly enhanced with respect to that of NU-1000. Being a highly promising adsorbent for SO₂ capture, [Ir]@NU-1000 combines exceptional SO₂ uptake at room temperature and outstanding cyclability. Additionally, it is stable and can be regenerated after SO₂ desorption at low temperature.

Air pollution and hospital admissions due to deep vein thrombosis (DVT) in Ahvaz, Iran

There are limited studies on the relation between short-term exposure to air pollutants and the risk of deep venous thrombosis (DVT). The aim of this study was to determine the relation between the concentration of these pollutants and the risk of hospital admissions due to DVT in Ahvaz, which is one of the world's highly polluted cities. Daily data on pollutants including O₃, NO, NO₂, SO₂, CO, PM₁₀, and PM_2.5and DVT hospital admissions were collected from2008until 2018. Quasi-Poisson regression combined with linear distributed lag models; adjusted for trend, seasonality, temperature, relative humidity, weekdays, and holidays were used to assess the relation between the daily average of air pollutants and hospital admission for DVT. The results showed that there was a significant increase in hospital admissions due to DVT in the total, men, women, and elderly populations in relation to NO and NO₂. There was also a significant increase in DVT hospital admissions in the male and ≤60 years populations related to PM₁₀; and among the female and ≤60 years old populations, related to PM_2.5. Finally, the results showed that there were significant positive associations between SO2 and CO exposure and the incidence of DVT hospital admissions among men and women, respectively. The results of this study show the possible effect of short-term exposure to air pollution on the risk of DVT. Further studies are required to investigate whether direct interventions through industry and government policy may alter the impact of specific pollutants in order to alter the incidence of DVT and other identified health complications.

Ambient air pollution and its influence on human health and welfare: an overview

Human health is closely related to his environment. The influence of exposure to air pollutants on human health and well-being has been an interesting subject and gained much volume of research over the last 50 years. In general, polluted air is considered one of the major factors leading to many diseases such as cardiovascular and respiratory disease and lung cancer for the people. Besides, air pollution adversely affects the animals and deteriorates the plant environment. The overarching objective of this review is to explore the previous researches regarding the causes and sources of air pollution, how to control it and its detrimental effects on human health. The definition of air pollution and its sources were introduced extensively. Major air pollutants and their noxious effects were detailed. Detrimental impacts of air pollution on human health and well-being were also presented.

The high-resolution estimation of sulfur dioxide (SO2) concentration, health effect and monetary costs in Beijing

Severe air pollution episodes with high SO₂ loading have been frequently observed during the last decades in Beijing and have caused a noticeable damage to human health. To advance the spatiotemporal prediction of SO₂ exposure in Beijing, we developed the monthly land use regression (LUR) models using daily SO₂ concentration data collected from 34 monitoring stations during 2016 and 7 categories of potential independent variables (socio-economic factors, traffic and transport, emission source, land use, meteorological data, building morphology and Geographic location) in Beijing. The average adjusted R² of 12 final LUR models was 0.62, and the root-mean-squared error (RMSE) was 4.12 μg/m³. The LOOCV R² and RMSE of LUR models reached 0.56 and 5.43 μg/m³, respectively, suggesting that the LUR models achieved the satisfactory performance. The prediction results suggested that the average SO₂ level in Beijing was 11.06 μg/m³ with the highest one up to 22.49 μg/m³ but the lowest one down to 3.86 μg/m³. The SO₂ exposure showed strong spatial heterogeneity, which was much higher in the southern area than that in the northern in Beijing. The mortality and morbidity due to the excessive SO₂ concentration were estimated to be 73 (95% CI:(38-125)) and 27854 (95% CI:(13852-41659)) cases per year in Beijing, leading to economic cost of 35.76 (95% CI:(16.45-54.06)) and 441.47 (95% CI:(318.31-562.04)) million RMB Yuan in 2016, respectively. This study clarified the intra- and inter-regional transport modeling of the SO₂ pollution in Beijing and supplied an important support for the future air-quality and public health management strategies.

Confined benzene within InOF-1: contrasting CO2 and SO2 capture behaviours

Benzene confinement enhances the CO₂ capture while decreases the SO₂ capture within InOF-1 due to the competition among molecules for the preferential adsorption sites. Pore channel view of CO2Bz@InOF-1b (left) and SO2⋯Bz@InOF-1b (right) systems.

Effect of air pollution on hospitalization for acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, stroke, and myocardial infarction

This study aims to analyze the acute effects of PM_2.5, PM₁₀, SO₂, NO₂, and O₃ on hospitalizations for acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (AECOPD), stroke, and myocardial infarction (MI) from 2014 to 2017 in Shenyang, China. Hospitalization records for AECOPD (17,655), stroke (276,736) and MI (26,235) and air pollutions concentration data (PM_2.5, PM₁₀, SO₂, NO₂, and O₃) were collected. A generalized additive model (GAM) was utilized to determine the impact of air pollutants on the relative risk (RR) of hospitalization for AECOPD, stroke, and MI. Stratified analysis for AECOPD was based on gender and age. It was based on gender, age, hypertension, and diabetes for stroke, and for MI it was based on gender, age, and coronary atherosclerosis. The lag effect for AECOPD in terms of gender analysis occurred at lag3-lag5. The hospitalization risk for stroke with hypertension due to SO₂ and NO₂ was greater than that of stroke without hypertension. The risk of hospitalization for stroke with hypertension as a comorbidity due to O₃ was lower than without hypertension. The risk of hospitalization for MI combined with coronary atherosclerosis due to PM_2.5, PM₁₀, or NO₂ was higher than that of hospitalizations for MI without coronary atherosclerosis. Air pollution increased the rate of hospitalization for AECOPD. SO₂ and O₃ appeared protective for stroke patients with coronary atherosclerosis. PM_2.5, PM₁₀, and NO₂ had no influence on total hospitalization for myocardial infarction.

Cardio-respiratory health effects of exposure to traffic-related air pollutants while exercising outdoors: A systematic review

Despite physical exercise provides numerous health benefits, outdoor exercisers are frequently exposed to traffic-related air pollutants (TRAP) known to be associated with respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. The aim of this systematic review was to investigate the effects of TRAP exposure, specifically particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), during outdoor exercise on cardio-respiratory health effects. Systematic database searches of PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus and Medline were performed by two researchers to identify peer-reviewed studies from 2000 to 2018. Combinations of keywords related to cardio-respiratory health effects, physical exercise and ambient air pollution were used. Thirteen studies were included, originating predominantly from European countries but also the American. They suggested that exercising in an environment with high TRAP exposure increases markers of respiratory and systemic inflammation, as well as, impairs the vascular function and increases artery pressure, when compared with an environment with low-TRAP exposure. In addition, the smaller particles appear to have the most severe health consequences compared with the larger coarse particles and NO₂. This study also provides evidence that specific groups of the population have enhanced susceptibility to adverse effects from particulate matter exposure while exercising. There is a need for more studies focused on the relationship between air pollution, physical exercise and health, as large societal benefits can be obtained from healthy environments that can promote outdoor physical exercise.

[The impact of sugarcane burning on hospitalization due to respiratory diseases]

The scope of this article is to evaluate the impact of emissions from sugarcane burning on hospital admission numbers for respiratory diseases in a sugarcane region. Hospital admission records for respiratory diseases were acquired from the database of the Hospital Information System of the Unified Health System (SIH-SUS) in the period from March 28, 2011 to December 28, 2012. Levels of PM10, NO2, O3, Temperature and Relative Humidity were recorded. Logistic regression models were created to analyze the association between the total number of hospitalizations, atmospheric pollutants and meteorological variables. A total of 1,179 hospitalization admissions were recorded, with a significant increase in cases of pneumonia in the burning period (p = 0.005). Likewise, it was observed that the cluster of PM10 and NO2 was influenced 67.9% (95% CI: 11.111-2.537) followed by cluster PM10, NO2, O3 and Temperature that influenced 91.1% (95% CI: 1.116; 3.271) in the total number of hospitalization admissions. During the sugarcane burning period there were more hospitalization admissions due to respiratory tract diseases, mainly pneumonia, where the influence of air pollutants and temperature in the process of illness in the population was detected.

Prevalence of childhood lead poisoning and respiratory disease associated with lead smelter emissions

BACKGROUND

The city of Port Pirie in South Australia has been a world leading centre for lead and zinc smelting and processing since 1889 that continues to cause contamination of its environment and resident population. This study quantifies the effect of lead and SO₂ emissions from Nyrstar Port Pirie Pty Ltd's smelter on blood lead and respiratory health outcomes, respectively, and establishes what air quality values are required to better protect human health.

METHOD

Blood lead and emergency department presentation data collected by South Australia Health (SA Health) and lead in air and SO₂ data collected by the South Australian Environment Protection Authority (SAEPA) were obtained and analysed to quantify health outcomes due to smelter emissions in Port Pirie. Regression analysis was used to assess the relationship between the concentration of lead in air and children's blood lead levels between the years of available data: 2003 to 2017. Ambient SO₂ concentrations (SAEPA) measured continuously between 2008 and 2018 were 24-hour averaged and compared to daily local emergency department respiratory presentation rates (available from July 2012 to October 2018). Rates of emergency department respiratory presentations at Port Pirie and regional comparators were calculated as age-standardised rates.

RESULTS

The data show that increases in ambient SO₂ concentrations are associated with increased rates of emergency department respiratory presentations of Port Pirie residents, in which children are over-represented. The 30-day rolling average of respiratory presentations was significantly associated (p < 0.05) with incremental increases in SO₂. Analysis of the relationship between lead in air and blood lead shows that annual geometric mean air lead concentrations need to be <0.11 μg/m³ to ensure the geometric mean blood lead of Port Pirie children under 5 years is ≤5 μg/dL. For children aged 24 months, lead in air needs to be no greater than 0.082 μg/m³ (annual geometric mean) to ensure geometric mean blood lead does not exceed 5 μg/dL.

CONCLUSION

Current smelting emissions continue to pose a clear risk of harm to Port Pirie children. Allowable emissions must be lowered significantly to limit adverse childhood health outcomes including respiratory illness and IQ, academic achievement and socio-behavioural problems that are associated with lead exposure at levels experienced by Port Pirie children. Current SO₂ levels are likely to be responsible for increased rates of emergency department respiratory presentations in Port Pirie compared with other South Australian locations. As a minimum, Australian SO₂ air quality standards need to be enforced in Port Pirie to better protect human health. Lead in air needs to be approximately 80% lower than the current national standard (0.5 μg/m³) to ensure that the geometric blood lead of children under 5 years is less than or equal to 5 μg/dL.

Emission of sulfur dioxide from polyurethane foam and respiratory health effects

Recently, health damage to children exposed to synthetic polyurethane (PU) running tracks has aroused social panic in China. Some possible toxic volatiles may be responsible for these damages. However, the exact cause remains unclear. We have detected a low concentration of sulfur dioxide (SO₂; 1.80-3.30 mg/m³) on the surface of the PU running track. Surprisingly, we found that SO₂ was generated from the PU running track, and even such a low concentration of SO₂ could induce severe lung inflammation with hemorrhage, inflammatory cell infiltration, and inflammatory factor secretion in mice after 2-week exposure. Prolonged exposure (5 weeks) to the SO₂ caused chronic pulmonary inflammation and pulmonary fibrosis in the mice. Peripheral hemogram results showed that platelet concentration increased significantly in the SO₂ group compared to that in the control group, and the proportion of blood neutrophils and monocytes among total leukocytes was more imbalanced in the SO₂ group (16.6%) than in the control group (8.0%). Further histopathology results of sternal marrow demonstrated that hematopoietic hyperplasia was severely suppressed with increased reticular stroma and adipocytes under SO₂ exposure. These data indicate that a low concentration of SO₂ generated spontaneously from PU running track outdoors as a secondary product is still harmful to health, as it impairs the respiratory system, hematopoiesis, and immunologic function. This indicates that the low-concentration SO₂ could be a major cause of diseases induced by air pollution, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Association between fine particulate air pollution and hospital admissions for chest pain in a subtropical city: Taipei, Taiwan

This study determined the association between fine particles (PM_2.5) levels and hospital admissions for chest pain (CP) in Taipei, Taiwan. Hospital admissions for CP and ambient air pollution data for Taipei were obtained for the period 2009-2013. The relative risk of hospital admissions was estimated using a case-crossover approach, after controlling for weather variables, day of the week, seasonality, and long-term time trends. For single-pollutant models (without adjustment for other pollutants), increased frequency of CP admissions was significantly associated with PM_2.5 levels on warm days (>23°C), with an interquartile range rise correlated with a 15% (95% confidence interval = 11-31%) elevation in number of CP admissions. In two-pollutant models, PM_2.5 remained significant after inclusion of each of the other four pollutants: sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), and ozone (O₃) on warm days. Generally, no marked associations were observed between PM_2.5 levels and risk of CP admissions on cool days in both single- and two-pollutant models. This study provides evidence that higher PM_2.5 concentrations enhance the risk of hospital admissions for CP on warm days.

Roads and motorized transport as major sources of priority substances? A data register study

A data register study was performed in order to identify the amounts of hazardous substances in products related to motorized transport in Norway during 2012. The hazardous substances were selected from legislative investigations performed by the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA), European Union (EU), and Norwegian Environment Agency (NEA). Information regarding hazardous substances in 52 selected product categories associated with traffic-related activities was obtained from the Norwegian Product Register administrated by the NEA. Substances present on ECHA list of substances of very high concern (SVHC), NEA national priority list, and priority substances under the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) were given most attention, with substances from ECHA community rolling action plan (CoRAP) also included. Results showed that selected products contained a diverse range of substances that were classified as hazardous to either human or environmental health. The quantities of hazardous substances in the selected products were 120 tons (SVHC), 280 tons (Norway priority list), and 2,400 tons (WFD). It proved difficult to pinpoint these quantities only to traffic-related operations since product categories included compounds used for other activities. However, data illustrate that large quantities of hazardous substances are employed concurrent with being prioritized for reduction/elimination by national and international authorities. A list of substances with annual use in 2012 >1 ton was prepared to aid a prioritization for further actions such as substitution, phasing out, or environmental monitoring. The list contains substances that are toxic to humans, especially as adverse reproductive/carcinogenic agents, and/or pose a threat to the environment.

Mapping Exposure to Multi-Pollutants Using Environmental Biomonitors-A Multi-Exposure Index

Atmosphere is a major pathway for transport and deposition of pollutants in the environment. In industrial areas, organic compounds are released or formed as by-products, such as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/F's). Inorganic chemical elements, including lead and arsenic, are also part of the pollutants mixture, and even in low concentrations may potentially be toxic and carcinogenic. However, assessing the spatial pattern of their deposition is difficult due to high spatial and temporal heterogeneity. Lichens have been used as biomonitors of atmospheric deposition, because these organisms encompass greater spatial detail than air monitoring stations and provide an integration of overall pollution. Based upon the ability of lichens to concentrate pollutants such as PCDD/F and chemical elements, the main objectives of this study were to develop a new semi-quantitative multi-pollutant toxicity exposure index (TEQ-like), derived from risk estimates, in an attempt to correlate several atmospheric pollutants to human exposure levels. The actual pollutant concentrations were measured in the environment, from biomonitors (organisms that integrate multi-pollutants), enabling interpolation and mapping of contaminant deposition within the region. Thus, the TEQ-like index provides a spatial representation not from absolute accumulation of the different pollutants, but from the accumulation weighted by their relative risk. The assessment of environmental human exposure to multi-pollutants through atmospheric deposition may be applied to industries to improve mitigation processes or to health stakeholders to target populations for a comprehensive risk assessment, epidemiological studies, and health recommendations.

Particulate matter-mediated release of long pentraxin 3 (PTX3) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in vitro: Limited importance of endotoxin and organic content

Exposure to particulate matter (PM) is associated with adverse health effects, but it is still relatively unknown which role PM sources and physicochemical properties play in the observed effects. It was postulated that PM in vitro induces release of long pentraxin 3 (PTX3) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and that endotoxin and organic compounds present in the PM regulate this release. A contact coculture of THP-1 human leukemia monocytes and A549 human adenocarcinoma alveolar pneumocytes was exposed to PM from Traffic, Wood, Diesel, and Quartz (10-40 µg/cm²) for 12-64 h to determine release of PTX3 and VEGF. The role of endotoxin and the organic fraction in the mediator release was assessed using polymyxin B sulfate and organic extracts, respectively. Finally, antagonists were used to investigate whether the early proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α affected the PTX3 and VEGF release. All PM samples induced a time-dependent release of both PTX3 and VEGF. Traffic mediated the greatest release of PTX3, whereas Wood and Diesel were more potent inducers of VEGF. The endotoxin content did not markedly affect release of either mediator, while the organic fraction exerted no significant effect on VEGF release and limited influence on PTX3 release. In addition, the IL-1 and TNF-α agonists affected PTX3 release more strongly than VEGF release. In conclusion, the current data show a limited impact of endotoxin and organic compounds on PTX3 and VEGF release. Further, the observed differences in response patterns may point toward differential regulation of PM-mediated release of PTX3 and VEGF.

Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) enhances allergic sensitization in BALB/c mice

Ambient particulate matter (PM), a component of air pollution, exacerbates airway inflammation and hyperreactivity in asthmatic patients. Studies showed that PM possesses adjuvant-like properties that enhance the allergic inflammatory response; however, the mechanism (or mechanisms) by which PM enhances the allergic response remains to be determined. The aim of this study was to assess how exposure to fine PM collected from Sacramento, CA, shapes the allergic airway immune response in BALB/c mice undergoing sensitization and challenge with ovalbumin (OVA). Eight-week-old BALB/c male mice were sensitized/challenged with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS/PBS; n = 6), PM/PBS (n = 6), OVA/OVA (n = 6), or OVA + PM/OVA (n = 6). Lung tissue, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and plasma were analyzed for cellular inflammation, cytokines, immunoglobulin E, and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression. Mice in the OVA + PM/OVA group displayed significantly increased airway inflammation compared to OVA/OVA animals. Total cells, macrophages, and eosinophils recovered in BALF were significantly elevated in the OVA + PM/OVA compared to OVA/OVA group. Histopathological grading indicated that OVA + PM/OVA treatment induced significant inflammation compared to OVA/OVA. Both immunoglobulin (Ig) E and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) α levels were significantly increased in OVA/OVA and OVA + PM /OVA groups compared to PBS/PBS control. The number of HO-1 positive alveolar macrophages was significantly elevated in lungs of mice treated with OVA + PM /OVA compared to OVA/OVA. Our findings suggest that fine PM enhances allergic inflammatory response in pulmonary tissue through mechanisms involving increased oxidative stress.

The role of micronutrients in the response to ambient air pollutants: Potential mechanisms and suggestions for research design

People living in regions of low socioeconomic status are thought to be prone to higher exposures to environmental pollutants, poor nutrition, and numerous preventable diseases and infections. Poverty correlates with pollution and malnutrition; however, limited studies examined their interrelationship. The well-studied, deleterious health effects attributed to environmental pollutants and poor nutrition may act in combination with produce more severe adverse health outcomes than any one factor alone. Deficiencies in specific nutrients render the body more susceptible to injury which may influence the pathways that serve as the mechanistic responses to ambient air pollutants. This review (1) explores specific micronutrients that are of global concern, (2) explains how these nutrients may impact the body's response to ambient air pollution, and (3) provides guidance on designing animal models of nutritional deficiency. It is likely that those individuals who reside in regions of high ambient air pollution are similarly malnourished. Therefore, it is important that research identifies specific nutrients of concern and their impact in identified regions of high ambient air pollution.

Modeling long-term effects attributed to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) exposure on asthma morbidity in a nationwide cohort in Israel

Studies have provided extensive documentation that acutely elevated environmental exposures contribute to chronic health problems. However, only attention has been paid to the effects of modificate of exposure assessment methods in environmental health investigations, leading to uncertainty and gaps in our understanding of exposure- and dose-response relationships. The goal of the present study was to evaluate whether average or peak concentration exerts a greater influence on asthma outcome, and which of the exposure models may better explain various physiological responses generated by nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) or sulfur dioxide (SO₂) air pollutants. The effects of annual NO₂ and SO₂ exposures on asthma prevalence were determined in 137,040 17-year-old males in Israel, who underwent standard health examinations before induction to military service during 1999-2008. Three alternative models of cumulative exposure were used: arithmetic mean level (AM), average peak concentration (APC), and total number of air pollution exposure episodes (NEP). Air pollution data for NO₂ and SO₂ levels were linked to the residence of each subject and asthma prevalence was predicted using bivariate logistic regression. There was significant increased risk for asthma occurrence attributed to NO₂ exposure in all models with the highest correlations demonstrated using the APC model. Data suggested that exposure-response is better correlated with NO₂ peak concentration than with average exposure concentration in subjects with asthma. For SO₂, there was a weaker but still significant exposure response association in all models. These differences may be related to differences in physiological responses including effects on different regions of the airways following exposure to these pollutants. NO₂, which is poorly soluble in water, penetrates deep into the bronchial tree, producing asthmatic manifestations such as inflammation and increased mucus production as a result of high gaseous concentrations in the lung parenchyma. In contrast, SO₂, which is highly water soluble, exerts its effects rapidly in the upper airways, leading to similar limited correlations at all levels of exposure with fewer asthmatic manifestations observed. These data indicate that differing exposure assessment methods may be needed to capture specific disease consequences associated with these air pollutants.

Acute effects of air pollution on enteritis admissions in Xi'an, China

The correlation between enteritis, a common digestive disease, and exposure to ambient air pollutants has not been examined in a comprehensive manner. The aim of this study was to determine whether an association between short-term air pollution exposure and outpatient visits for enteritis in Xi'an, China, occurred using a time-series investigation. Daily baseline data from January 1, 2013, to December 31, 2015, were obtained. The overdispersed Poisson generalized additive model was used to analyze the association between air pollutant levels and frequency of enteritis. A total of 12,815 outpatient hospital visits for enteritis were identified. A 10-µg/m³ increase in average concentrations of particulate matter (PM)₁₀, PM_2.5, nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and sulfur dioxide (SO₂), and a 0.1-mg/m³ rise of carbon monoxide (CO) were associated with a significantly elevated number of outpatient visits for enteritis on concurrent days, while ozone (O₃) did not markedly affect the frequency of enteritis clinical visits. There were no significant positive effects between two-pollutant and single-pollutant models. Lag models showed that the most prominent responses occurred on concurrent days. Confounding factors of gender and age played a significant role in the observations. Taken together, data indicate that air pollution may result in enhanced occurrence of enteritis attack.