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ElKhatib MAW, Gerges SH, Isse FA, El-Kadi AOS. Cytochrome P450 1B1 is critical in the development of TNF-α, IL-6, and LPS-induced cellular hypertrophy. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2024; 102:408-421. [PMID: 38701513 DOI: 10.1139/cjpp-2024-0037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2024]
Abstract
Heart failure (HF) is preceded by cellular hypertrophy (CeH) which alters expression of cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYPs) and arachidonic acid (AA) metabolism. Inflammation is involved in CeH pathophysiology, but mechanisms remain elusive. This study investigates the impacts of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and lipopolysaccharides (LPS) on the development of CeH and the role of CYP1B1. AC16 cells were treated with TNF-α, IL-6, and LPS in the presence and absence of CYP1B1-siRNA or resveratrol. mRNA and protein expression levels of CYP1B1 and hypertrophic markers were determined using PCR and Western blot analysis, respectively. CYP1B1 enzyme activity was determined, and AA metabolites were analyzed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Our results show that TNF-α, IL-6, and LPS induce expression of hypertrophic markers, induce CYP1B1 expression, and enantioselectively modulate CYP1B1-mediated AA metabolism in favor of mid-chain HETEs. CYP1B1-siRNA or resveratrol ameliorated these effects. In conclusion, our results demonstrate the crucial role of CYP1B1 in TNF-α, IL-6, and LPS-induced CeH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed A W ElKhatib
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Samar H Gerges
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Fadumo A Isse
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Ayman O S El-Kadi
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
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2
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Eggertsen TG, Saucerman JJ. Virtual drug screen reveals context-dependent inhibition of cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. Br J Pharmacol 2023; 180:2721-2735. [PMID: 37302817 PMCID: PMC10592153 DOI: 10.1111/bph.16163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 06/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Pathological cardiomyocyte hypertrophy is a response to cardiac stress that typically leads to heart failure. Despite being a primary contributor to pathological cardiac remodelling, the therapeutic space that targets hypertrophy is limited. Here, we apply a network model to virtually screen for FDA-approved drugs that induce or suppress cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH A logic-based differential equation model of cardiomyocyte signalling was used to predict drugs that modulate hypertrophy. These predictions were validated against curated experiments from the prior literature. The actions of midostaurin were validated in new experiments using TGFβ- and noradrenaline (NE)-induced hypertrophy in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes. KEY RESULTS Model predictions were validated in 60 out of 70 independent experiments from the literature and identify 38 inhibitors of hypertrophy. We additionally predict that the efficacy of drugs that inhibit cardiomyocyte hypertrophy is often context dependent. We predicted that midostaurin inhibits cardiomyocyte hypertrophy induced by TGFβ, but not noradrenaline, exhibiting context dependence. We further validated this prediction by cellular experiments. Network analysis predicted critical roles for the PI3K and RAS pathways in the activity of celecoxib and midostaurin, respectively. We further investigated the polypharmacology and combinatorial pharmacology of drugs. Brigatinib and irbesartan in combination were predicted to synergistically inhibit cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS This study provides a well-validated platform for investigating the efficacy of drugs on cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and identifies midostaurin for consideration as an antihypertrophic drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor G. Eggertsen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia
- Robert M. Berne Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Virginia
| | - Jeffrey J. Saucerman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia
- Robert M. Berne Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Virginia
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3
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Sun S, Qin J, Liao W, Gao X, Shang Z, Luo D, Xiong S. Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Cardiotoxicity Induced by BCR-ABL1 Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors -Underlying Mechanisms, Detection, Potential Therapies. Cardiovasc Toxicol 2023; 23:233-254. [PMID: 37479951 DOI: 10.1007/s12012-023-09800-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/08/2023] [Indexed: 07/23/2023]
Abstract
The advent of BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) targeted therapy revolutionized the treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) patients. Mitochondria are the key organelles for the maintenance of myocardial tissue homeostasis. However, cardiotoxicity associated with BCR-ABL1 TKIs can directly or indirectly cause mitochondrial damage and dysfunction, playing a pivotal role in cardiomyocytes homeostatic system and putting the cancer survivors at higher risk. In this review, we summarize the cardiotoxicity caused by BCR-ABL1 TKIs and the underlying mechanisms, which contribute dominantly to the damage of mitochondrial structure and dysfunction: endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, mitochondrial stress, damage of myocardial cell mitochondrial respiratory chain, increased production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS), and other kinases and other potential mechanisms of cardiotoxicity induced by BCR-ABL1 TKIs. Furthermore, detection and management of BCR-ABL1 TKIs will promote our rational use, and cardioprotection strategies based on mitochondria will improve our understanding of the cardiotoxicity from a mitochondrial perspective. Ultimately, we hope shed light on clinical decision-making. By integrate and learn from both research and practice, we will endeavor to minimize the mitochondria-mediated cardiotoxicity and reduce the adverse sequelae associated with BCR-ABL1 TKIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Sun
- Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
- Department of Medical Oncology, Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditioanal Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 610075, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Jiqiu Qin
- Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Wenhao Liao
- Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiang Gao
- Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Zhoubiao Shang
- Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Dehua Luo
- Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Shaoquan Xiong
- Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China.
- Department of Medical Oncology, Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditioanal Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 610075, Sichuan Province, China.
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4
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Cheng F, Xu Q, Li Q, Cui Z, Li W, Zeng F. Adverse reactions after treatment with dasatinib in chronic myeloid leukemia: Characteristics, potential mechanisms, and clinical management strategies. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1113462. [PMID: 36814818 PMCID: PMC9939513 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1113462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Dasatinib, a second-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitor, is recommended as first-line treatment for patients newly diagnosed with chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) and second-line treatment for those who are resistant or intolerant to therapy with imatinib. Dasatinib is superior to imatinib in terms of clinical response; however, the potential pulmonary toxicities associated with dasatinib, such as pulmonary arterial hypertension and pleural effusion, may limit its clinical use. Appropriate management of dasatinib-related severe events is important for improving the quality of life and prognosis of patients with CML. This review summarizes current knowledge regarding the characteristics, potential mechanisms, and clinical management of adverse reactions occurring after treatment of CML with dasatinib.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Cheng
- Department of Pharmacy, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China,Hubei Province Clinical Research Center for Precision Medicine for Critical Illness, Wuhan, China
| | - Qiling Xu
- Department of Pharmacy, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China,Hubei Province Clinical Research Center for Precision Medicine for Critical Illness, Wuhan, China
| | - Qiang Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China,Hubei Province Clinical Research Center for Precision Medicine for Critical Illness, Wuhan, China
| | - Zheng Cui
- Department of Pharmacy, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China,Hubei Province Clinical Research Center for Precision Medicine for Critical Illness, Wuhan, China
| | - Weiming Li
- Department of Hematology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China,*Correspondence: Weiming Li, ; Fang Zeng,
| | - Fang Zeng
- Department of Pharmacy, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China,Hubei Province Clinical Research Center for Precision Medicine for Critical Illness, Wuhan, China,*Correspondence: Weiming Li, ; Fang Zeng,
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5
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Shan L, Shi X, Hu T, Hu J, Guo Z, Song Y, Su D, Zhang X. In vitro differences in toddalolactone metabolism in various species and its effect on cytochrome P450 expression. PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY 2022; 60:1591-1605. [PMID: 35944298 PMCID: PMC9367672 DOI: 10.1080/13880209.2022.2108062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 07/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Toddalolactone, the main component of Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. (Rutaceae), has anticancer, antihypertension, anti-inflammatory, and antifungal activities. OBJECTIVE This study investigated the metabolic characteristics of toddalolactone. MATERIALS AND METHODS Toddalolactone metabolic stabilities were investigated by incubating toddalolactone (20 μM) with liver microsomes from humans, rabbits, mice, rats, dogs, minipigs, and monkeys for 0, 30, 60, and 90 min. The CYP isoforms involved in toddalolactone metabolism were characterized based on chemical inhibition studies and screening assays. The effects of toddalolactone (0, 10, and 50 µM) on CYP1A1 and CYP3A5 protein expression were investigated by immunoblotting. After injecting toddalolactone (10 mg/kg), in vivo pharmacokinetic profiles using six Sprague-Dawley rats were investigated by taking 9-time points, including 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 2, 4, 6 and 8 h. RESULTS Monkeys showed the greatest metabolic capacity in CYP-mediated and UGT-mediated reaction systems with short half-lives (T1/2) of 245 and 66 min, respectively, while T1/2 of humans in two reaction systems were 673 and 83 min, respectively. CYP1A1 and CYP3A5 were the major CYP isoforms involved in toddalolactone biotransformation. Induction of CYP1A1 protein expression by 50 μM toddalolactone was approximately 50% greater than that of the control (0 μM). Peak plasma concentration (Cmax) for toddalolactone was 0.42 μg/mL, and Tmax occurred at 0.25 h post-dosing. The elimination t1/2 was 1.05 h, and the AUC0-t was 0.46 μg/mL/h. CONCLUSIONS These findings demonstrated the significant species differences of toddalolactone metabolic profiles, which will promote appropriate species selection in further toddalolactone studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Shan
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
| | - Xianbao Shi
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
| | - Tingting Hu
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
| | - Jiayin Hu
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
| | - Zhe Guo
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
| | - Yonggui Song
- Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanchang, China
| | - Dan Su
- Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanchang, China
| | - Xiaoyong Zhang
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
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6
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Pascale JV, Lucchesi PA, Garcia V. Unraveling the Role of 12- and 20- HETE in Cardiac Pathophysiology: G-Protein-Coupled Receptors, Pharmacological Inhibitors, and Transgenic Approaches. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 2021; 77:707-717. [PMID: 34016841 PMCID: PMC8523029 DOI: 10.1097/fjc.0000000000001013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Arachidonic acid-derived lipid mediators play crucial roles in the development and progression of cardiovascular diseases. Eicosanoid metabolites generated by lipoxygenases and cytochrome P450 enzymes produce several classes of molecules, including the epoxyeicosatrienoic acid (EET) and hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETE) family of bioactive lipids. In general, the cardioprotective effects of EETs have been documented across a number of cardiac diseases. In contrast, members of the HETE family have been shown to contribute to the pathogenesis of ischemic cardiac disease, maladaptive cardiac hypertrophy, and heart failure. The net effect of 12(S)- and 20-HETE depends upon the relative amounts generated, ratio of HETEs:EETs produced, timing of synthesis, as well as cellular and subcellular mechanisms activated by each respective metabolite. HETEs are synthesized by and affect multiple cell types within the myocardium. Moreover, cytochrome P450-derived and lipoxygenase- derived metabolites have been shown to directly influence cardiac myocyte growth and the regulation of cardiac fibroblasts. The mechanistic data uncovered thus far have employed the use of enzyme inhibitors, HETE antagonists, and the genetic manipulation of lipid-producing enzymes and their respective receptors, all of which influence a complex network of outcomes that complicate data interpretation. This review will summarize and integrate recent findings on the role of 12(S)-/20-HETE in cardiac diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Victor Garcia
- Department of Pharmacology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY
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7
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CYP1B1 as a therapeutic target in cardio-oncology. Clin Sci (Lond) 2021; 134:2897-2927. [PMID: 33185690 PMCID: PMC7672255 DOI: 10.1042/cs20200310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Cardiovascular complications have been frequently reported in cancer patients and survivors, mainly because of various cardiotoxic cancer treatments. Despite the known cardiovascular toxic effects of these treatments, they are still clinically used because of their effectiveness as anti-cancer agents. In this review, we discuss the growing body of evidence suggesting that inhibition of the cytochrome P450 1B1 enzyme (CYP1B1) can be a promising therapeutic strategy that has the potential to prevent cancer treatment-induced cardiovascular complications without reducing their anti-cancer effects. CYP1B1 is an extrahepatic enzyme that is expressed in cardiovascular tissues and overexpressed in different types of cancers. A growing body of evidence is demonstrating a detrimental role of CYP1B1 in both cardiovascular diseases and cancer, via perturbed metabolism of endogenous compounds, production of carcinogenic metabolites, DNA adduct formation, and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Several chemotherapeutic agents have been shown to induce CYP1B1 in cardiovascular and cancer cells, possibly via activating the Aryl hydrocarbon Receptor (AhR), ROS generation, and inflammatory cytokines. Induction of CYP1B1 is detrimental in many ways. First, it can induce or exacerbate cancer treatment-induced cardiovascular complications. Second, it may lead to significant chemo/radio-resistance, undermining both the safety and effectiveness of cancer treatments. Therefore, numerous preclinical studies demonstrate that inhibition of CYP1B1 protects against chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity and prevents chemo- and radio-resistance. Most of these studies have utilized phytochemicals to inhibit CYP1B1. Since phytochemicals have multiple targets, future studies are needed to discern the specific contribution of CYP1B1 to the cardioprotective and chemo/radio-sensitizing effects of these phytochemicals.
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Left Ventricular Hypertrophy: Roles of Mitochondria CYP1B1 and Melatonergic Pathways in Co-Ordinating Wider Pathophysiology. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20164068. [PMID: 31434333 PMCID: PMC6720185 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20164068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Revised: 08/11/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) can be adaptive, as arising from exercise, or pathological, most commonly when driven by hypertension. The pathophysiology of LVH is consistently associated with an increase in cytochrome P450 (CYP)1B1 and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and a decrease in sirtuins and mitochondria functioning. Treatment is usually targeted to hypertension management, although it is widely accepted that treatment outcomes could be improved with cardiomyocyte hypertrophy targeted interventions. The current article reviews the wide, but disparate, bodies of data pertaining to LVH pathoetiology and pathophysiology, proposing a significant role for variations in the N-acetylserotonin (NAS)/melatonin ratio within mitochondria in driving the biological underpinnings of LVH. Heightened levels of mitochondria CYP1B1 drive the ‘backward’ conversion of melatonin to NAS, resulting in a loss of the co-operative interactions of melatonin and sirtuin-3 within mitochondria. NAS activates the brain-derived neurotrophic factor receptor, TrkB, leading to raised trophic signalling via cyclic adenosine 3′,5′-monophosphate (cAMP)-response element binding protein (CREB) and the MAPKs, which are significantly increased in LVH. The gut microbiome may be intimately linked to how stress and depression associate with LVH and hypertension, with gut microbiome derived butyrate, and other histone deacetylase inhibitors, significant modulators of the melatonergic pathways and LVH more generally. This provides a model of LVH that has significant treatment and research implications.
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9
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Kwapiszewska G, Johansen AKZ, Gomez-Arroyo J, Voelkel NF. Role of the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor/ARNT/Cytochrome P450 System in Pulmonary Vascular Diseases. Circ Res 2019; 125:356-366. [PMID: 31242807 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.119.315054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE CYPs (cytochrome p450) are critically involved in the metabolism of xenobiotics and toxins. Given that pulmonary hypertension is strongly associated with environmental exposure, we hypothesize that CYPs play a role in the development and maintenance of pathological vascular remodeling. OBJECTIVE We sought to identify key CYPs that could link drug or hormone metabolism to the development of pulmonary hypertension. METHODS AND RESULTS We searched in Medline (PubMed) database, as well as http://www.clinicaltrials.gov, for CYPs associated with many key aspects of pulmonary arterial hypertension including, but not limited to, severe pulmonary hypertension, estrogen metabolism, inflammation mechanisms, quasi-malignant cell growth, drug susceptibility, and metabolism of the pulmonary arterial hypertension-specific drugs. CONCLUSIONS We postulate a hypothesis where the AhR (aryl hydrocarbon receptor) mediates aberrant cell growth via expression of different CYPs associated with estrogen metabolism and inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grazyna Kwapiszewska
- From the Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Medical University of Graz, Austria (G.K.)
| | - Anne Katrine Z Johansen
- Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati, OH (A.K.Z.J.)
| | - Jose Gomez-Arroyo
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, OH (J.G.-A.)
- Division of Pulmonary Biology, Perinatal Institute of Cincinnati Children's Hospital Research Foundation, OH (J.G.-A.)
| | - Norbert F Voelkel
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, the Netherlands (N.F.V.)
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Abdelgawad IY, Grant MKO, Zordoky BN. Leveraging the Cardio-Protective and Anticancer Properties of Resveratrol in Cardio-Oncology. Nutrients 2019; 11:nu11030627. [PMID: 30875799 PMCID: PMC6471701 DOI: 10.3390/nu11030627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2019] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cardio-oncology is a clinical/scientific discipline which aims to prevent and/or treat cardiovascular diseases in cancer patients. Although a large number of cancer treatments are known to cause cardiovascular toxicity, they are still widely used because they are highly effective. Unfortunately, therapeutic interventions to prevent and/or treat cancer treatment-induced cardiovascular toxicity have not been established yet. A major challenge for such interventions is to protect the cardiovascular system without compromising the therapeutic benefit of anticancer medications. Intriguingly, the polyphenolic natural compound resveratrol and its analogs have been shown in preclinical studies to protect against cancer treatment-induced cardiovascular toxicity. They have also been shown to possess significant anticancer properties on their own, and to enhance the anticancer effect of other cancer treatments. Thus, they hold significant promise to protect the cardiovascular system and fight the cancer at the same time. In this review, we will discuss the current knowledge regarding the cardio-protective and the anticancer properties of resveratrol and its analogs. Thereafter, we will discuss the challenges that face the clinical application of these agents. To conclude, we will highlight important gaps of knowledge and future research directions to accelerate the translation of these exciting preclinical findings to cancer patient care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibrahim Y Abdelgawad
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
| | - Marianne K O Grant
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
| | - Beshay N Zordoky
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
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