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Bui QTN, Pradhan B, Kim HS, Ki JS. Environmental Factors Modulate Saxitoxins (STXs) Production in Toxic Dinoflagellate Alexandrium: An Updated Review of STXs and Synthesis Gene Aspects. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:210. [PMID: 38787062 PMCID: PMC11125744 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16050210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium is known to form harmful algal blooms (HABs) and produces saxitoxin (STX) and its derivatives (STXs) that cause paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) in humans. Cell growth and cellular metabolism are affected by environmental conditions, including nutrients, temperature, light, and the salinity of aquatic systems. Abiotic factors not only engage in photosynthesis, but also modulate the production of toxic secondary metabolites, such as STXs, in dinoflagellates. STXs production is influenced by a variety of abiotic factors; however, the relationship between the regulation of these abiotic variables and STXs accumulation seems not to be consistent, and sometimes it is controversial. Few studies have suggested that abiotic factors may influence toxicity and STXs-biosynthesis gene (sxt) regulation in toxic Alexandrium, particularly in A. catenella, A. minutum, and A. pacificum. Hence, in this review, we focused on STXs production in toxic Alexandrium with respect to the major abiotic factors, such as temperature, salinity, nutrients, and light intensity. This review informs future research on more sxt genes involved in STXs production in relation to the abiotic factors in toxic dinoflagellates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quynh Thi Nhu Bui
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, Republic of Korea; (Q.T.N.B.); (H.-S.K.)
| | - Biswajita Pradhan
- Department of Biotechnology, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, Republic of Korea;
- Department of Botany, Model Degree College, Rayagada 765017, Odisha, India
| | - Han-Sol Kim
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, Republic of Korea; (Q.T.N.B.); (H.-S.K.)
| | - Jang-Seu Ki
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, Republic of Korea; (Q.T.N.B.); (H.-S.K.)
- Department of Biotechnology, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, Republic of Korea;
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Bashir F, Bashir A, Bouaïcha N, Chen L, Codd GA, Neilan B, Xu WL, Ziko L, Rajput VD, Minkina T, Arruda RS, Ganai BA. Cyanotoxins, biosynthetic gene clusters, and factors modulating cyanotoxin biosynthesis. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2023; 39:241. [PMID: 37394567 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-023-03652-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (CHABs) are a global environmental concern that encompasses public health issues, water availability, and water quality owing to the production of various secondary metabolites (SMs), including cyanotoxins in freshwater, brackish water, and marine ecosystems. The frequency, extent, magnitude, and duration of CHABs are increasing globally. Cyanobacterial species traits and changing environmental conditions, including anthropogenic pressure, eutrophication, and global climate change, together allow cyanobacteria to thrive. The cyanotoxins include a diverse range of low molecular weight compounds with varying biochemical properties and modes of action. With the application of modern molecular biology techniques, many important aspects of cyanobacteria are being elucidated, including aspects of their diversity, gene-environment interactions, and genes that express cyanotoxins. The toxicological, environmental, and economic impacts of CHABs strongly advocate the need for continuing, extensive efforts to monitor cyanobacterial growth and to understand the mechanisms regulating species composition and cyanotoxin biosynthesis. In this review, we critically examined the genomic organization of some cyanobacterial species that lead to the production of cyanotoxins and their characteristic properties discovered to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fahim Bashir
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, 190006, India
| | - Arif Bashir
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Government College for Women, Nawa-Kadal, Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir, India
| | - Noureddine Bouaïcha
- Laboratory Ecology, Systematic, and Evolution, UMR 8079 Univ. Paris-Sud, CNRS, AgroParisTech, University Paris-Saclay, 91190, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
| | - Liang Chen
- Institute for Ecological Research and Pollution Control of Plateau Lakes, School of Ecology and Environmental Science (SEES), Yunnan University (YNU), 650500, Kunming, China.
- Donghu Experimental Station of Lake Ecosystems, State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology (IHB), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Wuhan, 430072, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Eco-Hydraulics in Northwest Arid Region, Faculty of Water Resources and Hydroelectric Engineering, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an, 710048, China.
| | - Geoffrey A Codd
- Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK
- School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 5EH, Scotland, UK
| | - Brett Neilan
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
| | - Wen-Li Xu
- Donghu Experimental Station of Lake Ecosystems, State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology (IHB), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Laila Ziko
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire Hosted By Global Academic Foundation, Cairo, Egypt
- Biology Department, School of Sciences and Engineering, The American University in Cairo, New Cairo, 11835, Egypt
| | - Vishnu D Rajput
- Academy of Biology and Biotechnology, Southern Federal University, Rostov-On-Don, Russia
| | - Tatiana Minkina
- Academy of Biology and Biotechnology, Southern Federal University, Rostov-On-Don, Russia
| | - Renan Silva Arruda
- Laboratory of Ecology and Physiology of Phytoplankton, Department of Plant Biology, University of Rio de Janeiro State, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Bashir Ahmad Ganai
- Center of Research for Development (CORD), University of Kashmir, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, 190006, India.
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Mendoza JCE, Chan KO, Lai JCY, Thoma BP, Clark PF, Guinot D, Felder DL, Ng PKL. A comprehensive molecular phylogeny of the brachyuran crab superfamily Xanthoidea provides novel insights into its systematics and evolutionary history. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2022; 177:107627. [PMID: 36096461 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2022.107627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2022] [Revised: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Maximum likelihood and Bayesian phylogenies for the brachyuran crab superfamily Xanthoidea were estimated based on three mitochondrial and four nuclear genes to infer phylogenetic relationships and inform taxonomy. Habitat data was then used in conjunction with several diversification rates analyses (BAMM, BiSSE, HiSSE, and FiSSE) to test evolutionary hypotheses regarding the diversification of xanthoid crabs. The phylogenies presented are the most comprehensive to date in terms of global diversity as they include all four constituent families (Xanthidae, Panopeidae, Pseudorhombilidae, and Linnaeoxanthidae) spanning all oceans in which xanthoid crabs occur. Six Xanthoidea families are recognised. Panopeidae and Xanthidae sensu stricto are the two largest family-level clades, which are reciprocally monophyletic. Pseudorhombilidae is nested within and is here treated as a subfamily of Panopeidae. Former subfamilies or tribes of Xanthidae sensu lato are basally positioned clades in Xanthoidea and are here assigned family-level ranks: Garthiellidae, Linnaeoxanthidae, Antrocarcinidae, and Nanocassiopidae. The genera Linnaeoxantho and Melybia were recovered in separate clades with Linnaeoxantho being sister to the family Antrocarcinidae, while Melybia was recovered within the family Panopeidae. The existing subfamily classification of Xanthidae and Panopeidae is drastically restructured with 20 xanthid and four panopeid subfamilies provisionally recognised. Diversification-time analyses inferred the origin of Xanthoidea and Garthiellidae in the Eocene, while the other families originated during the Oligocene. The majority of genus- and species-level diversification took place during the Miocene. Ancestral state reconstruction based on depth of occurrence (shallow vs. deep water) shows some ambiguity for the most recent common ancestor of Xanthoidea and Nanocassiopidae. The most recent common ancestors of Antrocarcinidae and Panopeidae were likely deep-water species, while those of Garthiellidae and Xanthidae were probably shallow-water species. Several shifts in net diversification rates were detected but they were not associated with depth-related habitat transitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose C E Mendoza
- Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 2 Conservatory Drive, 117377 Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Kin Onn Chan
- Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 2 Conservatory Drive, 117377 Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Joelle C Y Lai
- Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 2 Conservatory Drive, 117377 Singapore, Singapore
| | - Brent P Thoma
- Department of Biology, Jackson State University, P.O. Box 18540, Jackson, MS 39217, USA
| | - Paul F Clark
- Department of Life Sciences, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, United Kingdom
| | - Danièle Guinot
- Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Case Postale 53, 57 rue Cuvier, F-75231 Paris cedex 05, France
| | - Darryl L Felder
- Department of Biology and Laboratory for Crustacean Research, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA 70504, USA
| | - Peter K L Ng
- Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 2 Conservatory Drive, 117377 Singapore, Singapore
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Núñez-Vázquez EJ, Poot-Delgado CA, Turner AD, Hernández-Sandoval FE, Okolodkov YB, Fernández-Herrera LJ, Bustillos-Guzmán JJ. Paralytic Shellfish Toxins of Pyrodinium bahamense (Dinophyceae) in the Southeastern Gulf of Mexico. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14110760. [PMID: 36356010 PMCID: PMC9694361 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14110760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
In September and November 2016, eight marine sampling sites along the coast of the southeastern Gulf of Mexico were monitored for the presence of lipophilic and hydrophilic toxins. Water temperature, salinity, hydrogen potential, dissolved oxygen saturation, inorganic nutrients and phytoplankton abundance were also determined. Two samples filtered through glass fiber filters were used for the extraction and analysis of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) by lateral flow immunochromatography (IFL), HPLC with post-column oxidation and fluorescent detection (FLD) and UHPLC coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). Elevated nutrient contents were associated with the sites of rainwater discharge or those near anthropogenic activities. A predominance of the dinoflagellate Pyrodinium bahamense was found with abundances of up to 104 cells L-1. Identification of the dinoflagellate was corroborated by light and scanning electron microscopy. Samples for toxins were positive by IFL, and the analogs NeoSTX and STX were identified and quantified by HPLC-FLD and UHPLC-MS/MS, with a total PST concentration of 6.5 pg cell-1. This study is the first report that confirms the presence of PSTs in P. bahamense in Mexican waters of the Gulf of Mexico.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erick J. Núñez-Vázquez
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste (CIBNOR), Apdo. Postal 128, La Paz 23000, Mexico
- Investigación para la Conservación y el Desarrollo (INCODE), Nayarit 1325 A. Col. Las Garzas, La Paz 23079, Mexico
- Correspondence: (E.J.N.-V.); (C.A.P.-D.)
| | - Carlos A. Poot-Delgado
- Tecnológico Nacional de México/Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Champotón, Campeche (TECNM-ITESCHAM), Carretera Champotón, Isla Aguada Km 2, Col. El Arenal, Champotón 4400, Mexico
- Correspondence: (E.J.N.-V.); (C.A.P.-D.)
| | - Andrew D. Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Food Safety Group, Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK
| | | | - Yuri B. Okolodkov
- Instituto de Ciencias Marinas y Pesquerías (ICIMAP-UV), Universidad Veracruzana, Calle Mar Mediterráneo Núm. 314, Fracc. Costa Verde, Boca del Río 9429, Mexico
| | | | - José J. Bustillos-Guzmán
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste (CIBNOR), Apdo. Postal 128, La Paz 23000, Mexico
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Klemm K, Cembella A, Clarke D, Cusack C, Arneborg L, Karlson B, Liu Y, Naustvoll L, Siano R, Gran-Stadniczeñko S, John U. Apparent biogeographical trends in Alexandrium blooms for northern Europe: identifying links to climate change and effective adaptive actions. HARMFUL ALGAE 2022; 119:102335. [PMID: 36344194 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2022.102335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium Halim represents perhaps the most significant and intensively studied genus with respect to species diversity, life history strategies, toxigenicity, biogeographical distribution, and global magnitude and consequences harmful algal blooms (HABs). The socioeconomic impacts, environmental and human health risks, and mitigation strategies for toxigenic Alexandrium blooms have also been explored in recent years. Human adaptive actions based on future scenarios of bloom dynamics and shifts in biogeographical distribution under climate-change parameters remain under development and not yet implemented on a regional scale. In the CoCliME (Co-development of climate services for adaptation to changing marine ecosystems) project these issues were addressed with respect to past, current and anticipated future status of key HAB genera and expected benefits of enhanced monitoring. Data on the distribution and frequency of Alexandrium blooms related to paralytic shellfish toxin (PST) events from key CoCliME Case Study areas, comprising the North Sea and adjacent Kattegat-Skagerrak, Norwegian Sea, and Baltic Sea, and eastern North Atlantic marginal seas, were evaluated in a contemporary and historical context over the past several decades. The first evidence of possible biogeographical expansion of Alexandrium taxa into eastern Arctic gateways was provided from DNA barcoding signatures. Various key climate change indicators, such as salinity, temperature, and water-column stratification, relevant to Alexandrium bloom initiation and development were identified. The possible influence of changing variables on bloom dynamics, magnitude, frequency and spatial and temporal distribution were interpreted in the context of regional ocean climate models. These climate change impact indicators may play key roles in selecting for the occurrence and diversity of Alexandrium species within the broader microeukaryote communities. For example, shifts to higher temperature and lower salinity regimes predicted for the southern North Sea indicate the potential for increased Alexandrium blooms, currently absent from this area. Ecological and socioeconomic impacts of Alexandrium blooms and effects on fisheries and aquaculture resources and coastal ecosystem function are evaluated, and, where feasible, effective adaptation strategies are proposed herein as emerging climate services.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin Klemm
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; Helmholtz Institute for Functional Marine Biodiversity at the University of Oldenburg (HIFMB), Ammerländer Heerstraße 231, Oldenburg 26129, Germany
| | - Allan Cembella
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany
| | - Dave Clarke
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Co. Galway, Ireland
| | | | - Lars Arneborg
- Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute, Research and development, oceanography, Sven Källfelts gata 15, Västra Frölunda, SE-426 71, Sweden
| | - Bengt Karlson
- Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute, Research and development, oceanography, Sven Källfelts gata 15, Västra Frölunda, SE-426 71, Sweden
| | - Ye Liu
- Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute, Research and development, oceanography, Sven Källfelts gata 15, Västra Frölunda, SE-426 71, Sweden
| | - Lars Naustvoll
- Institute of Marine Research, PO Box 1870 Nordnes, Bergen NO-5817, Norway
| | | | - Sandra Gran-Stadniczeñko
- Section for Aquatic Biology and Toxicology, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066, Blindern, Oslo 0316, Norway
| | - Uwe John
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; Helmholtz Institute for Functional Marine Biodiversity at the University of Oldenburg (HIFMB), Ammerländer Heerstraße 231, Oldenburg 26129, Germany.
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6
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Dean KJ, Alexander RP, Hatfield RG, Lewis AM, Coates LN, Collin T, Teixeira Alves M, Lee V, Daumich C, Hicks R, White P, Thomas KM, Ellis JR, Turner AD. The Common Sunstar Crossaster papposus-A Neurotoxic Starfish. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:695. [PMID: 34940694 PMCID: PMC8704474 DOI: 10.3390/md19120695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Saxitoxins (STXs) are a family of potent neurotoxins produced naturally by certain species of phytoplankton and cyanobacteria which are extremely toxic to mammalian nervous systems. The accumulation of STXs in bivalve molluscs can significantly impact animal and human health. Recent work conducted in the North Sea highlighted the widespread presence of various saxitoxins in a range of benthic organisms, with the common sunstar (Crossaster papposus) demonstrating high concentrations of saxitoxins. In this study, an extensive sampling program was undertaken across multiple seas surrounding the UK, with 146 starfish and 5 brittlestars of multiple species analysed for STXs. All the common sunstars analysed (n > 70) contained quantifiable levels of STXs, with the total concentrations ranging from 99 to 11,245 µg STX eq/kg. The common sunstars were statistically different in terms of toxin loading to all the other starfish species tested. Two distinct toxic profiles were observed in sunstars, a decarbomylsaxitoxin (dcSTX)-dominant profile which encompassed samples from most of the UK coast and an STX and gonyautoxin2 (GTX2) profile from the North Yorkshire coast of England. Compartmentalisation studies demonstrated that the female gonads exhibited the highest toxin concentrations of all the individual organs tested, with concentrations >40,000 µg STX eq/kg in one sample. All the sunstars, male or female, exhibited the presence of STXs in the skin, digestive glands and gonads. This study highlights that the common sunstar ubiquitously contains STXs, independent of the geographical location around the UK and often at concentrations many times higher than the current regulatory limits for STXs in molluscs; therefore, the common sunstar should be considered toxic hereafter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl J. Dean
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Ryan P. Alexander
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Robert G. Hatfield
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Adam M. Lewis
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Lewis N. Coates
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Tom Collin
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
- Department of Chemistry, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Mickael Teixeira Alves
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Vanessa Lee
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
- Department of Chemistry, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Caroline Daumich
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Ruth Hicks
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Peter White
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Krista M. Thomas
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS B3Z 3H1, Canada;
| | - Jim R. Ellis
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Pakefield Road, Lowestoft NR33 0HT, UK;
| | - Andrew D. Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
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7
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Berlinck RGS, Crnkovic CM, Gubiani JR, Bernardi DI, Ióca LP, Quintana-Bulla JI. The isolation of water-soluble natural products - challenges, strategies and perspectives. Nat Prod Rep 2021; 39:596-669. [PMID: 34647117 DOI: 10.1039/d1np00037c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Covering period: up to 2019Water-soluble natural products constitute a relevant group of secondary metabolites notably known for presenting potent biological activities. Examples are aminoglycosides, β-lactam antibiotics, saponins of both terrestrial and marine origin, and marine toxins. Although extensively investigated in the past, particularly during the golden age of antibiotics, hydrophilic fractions have been less scrutinized during the last few decades. This review addresses the possible reasons on why water-soluble metabolites are now under investigated and describes approaches and strategies for the isolation of these natural compounds. It presents examples of several classes of hydrosoluble natural products and how they have been isolated. Novel stationary phases and chromatography techniques are also reviewed, providing a perspective towards a renaissance in the investigation of water-soluble natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto G S Berlinck
- Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, CP 780, CEP 13560-970, São Carlos, SP, Brazil.
| | - Camila M Crnkovic
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade de São Paulo, CEP 05508-000, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Juliana R Gubiani
- Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, CP 780, CEP 13560-970, São Carlos, SP, Brazil.
| | - Darlon I Bernardi
- Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, CP 780, CEP 13560-970, São Carlos, SP, Brazil.
| | - Laura P Ióca
- Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, CP 780, CEP 13560-970, São Carlos, SP, Brazil.
| | - Jairo I Quintana-Bulla
- Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, CP 780, CEP 13560-970, São Carlos, SP, Brazil.
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8
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Khokhar FN, Ahmed N, Ali A, Gabol K, Khooharo AR, Faheem M, Hussain A, Burhan ZN, Siddiqui PJA. Distribution and abundance of dinoflagellates from the coastal waters of Karachi, Pakistan, northern part of the Arabian Sea. BRAZ J BIOL 2021; 82:e245124. [PMID: 34259716 DOI: 10.1590/1519-6984.245124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study reports on seasonal and spatial variations in diversity, distribution and abundance of dinoflegellates and indicates the presence of HAB species in Pakistan waters. A total of 179 taxa, recorded in this study from offshore and near-shore waters, belong to 41 genera in 26 families and 10 orders. The high species count (149 species) was recorded from Manora Island offshore station (MI-1) and 105 spp, 109 spp and 115 spp were encountered from the Mubarak village offshore station (MV-1), Manora near shore station (MI-2) and Mubarak Village near-shore station (MV-2) respectively. Tripos furca was the dominant and frequently occurring species (> 1 x103 to > 25 x103 cells L-1 from coastal and >1x 105 cells L-l from near-shore stations) in addition to less abundant Alexandrium catenella, Alexandrium sp., Alexandrium minutum, and Prorocentrum micans (>103 to 25x 103cells/L). Another 44 species occurred in relatively low numbers (<103 cell L-l). Seventy species were found throughout the study period at all four stations. High number of species in three genera (Tripos (38), Protoperidinium (34) and Prorocentrum (20) was recorded. Potently toxic (16 genera 43 species) and HAB related (19 genera and 30 species) dinoflagellate taxa were also recorded. The percent contribution of dinoflagellates in total phytoplankton population generally remained below 20% except for a few instances. Manora Island stations had comparatively higher Shannon index and equitability and slightly lower dominance index. The PCA plot showed strong positive correlation among chlorophyll-a concentration, dissolved oxygen, total number of phytoplankton and dinoflagellates.
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Affiliation(s)
- F N Khokhar
- University of Karachi, Centre of Excellence in Marine Biology, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - N Ahmed
- Bahria University, Aquatic Diagnostic Laboratories, Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - A Ali
- University of Karachi, Centre of Excellence in Marine Biology, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - K Gabol
- University of Karachi, Department of Zoology, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - A R Khooharo
- University of Karachi, Centre of Excellence in Marine Biology, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - M Faheem
- University of Karachi, Department of Zoology, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - A Hussain
- University of Karachi, Department of Zoology, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Z N Burhan
- University of Karachi, Centre of Excellence in Marine Biology, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - P J A Siddiqui
- University of Karachi, Centre of Excellence in Marine Biology, Karachi, Pakistan
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9
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Cusick K, Duran G. sxtA4+ and sxtA4- Genotypes Occur Together within Natural Pyrodinium bahamense Sub-Populations from the Western Atlantic. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9061128. [PMID: 34071086 PMCID: PMC8224543 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9061128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Saxitoxin (STX) is a secondary metabolite and potent neurotoxin produced by several genera of harmful algal bloom (HAB) marine dinoflagellates. The basis for variability in STX production within natural bloom populations is undefined as both toxic and non-toxic strains (of the same species) have been isolated from the same geographic locations. Pyrodinium bahamense is a STX-producing bioluminescent dinoflagellate that blooms along the east coast of Florida as well as the bioluminescent bays in Puerto Rico (PR), though no toxicity reports exist for PR populations. The core genes in the dinoflagellate STX biosynthetic pathway have been identified, and the sxtA4 gene is essential for toxin production. Using sxtA4 as a molecular proxy for the genetic capacity of STX production, we examined sxtA4+ and sxtA4- genotype frequency at the single cell level in P. bahamense populations from different locations in the Indian River Lagoon (IRL), FL, and Mosquito Bay (MB), a bioluminescent bay in PR. Multiplex PCR was performed on individual cells with Pyrodinium-specific primers targeting the 18S rRNA gene and sxtA4. The results reveal that within discrete natural populations of P. bahamense, both sxtA4+ and sxtA4- genotypes occur, and the sxtA4+ genotype dominates. In the IRL, the frequency of the sxtA4+ genotype ranged from ca. 80–100%. In MB, sxtA4+ genotype frequency ranged from ca 40–66%. To assess the extent of sxtA4 variation within individual cells, sxtA4 amplicons from single cells representative of the different sampling sites were cloned and sequenced. Overall, two variants were consistently obtained, one of which is likely a pseudogene based on alignment with cDNA sequences. These are the first data demonstrating the existence of both genotypes in natural P. bahamense sub-populations, as well as sxtA4 presence in P. bahamense from PR. These results provide insights on underlying genetic factors influencing the potential for toxin variability among natural sub-populations of HAB species and highlight the need to study the genetic diversity within HAB sub-populations at a fine level in order to identify the molecular mechanisms driving HAB evolution.
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10
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Application of Six Detection Methods for Analysis of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Shellfish from Four Regions within Latin America. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:md18120616. [PMID: 33287439 PMCID: PMC7761785 DOI: 10.3390/md18120616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Revised: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
With the move away from use of mouse bioassay (MBA) to test bivalve mollusc shellfish for paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins, countries around the world are having to adopt non-animal-based alternatives that fulfil ethical and legal requirements. Various assays have been developed which have been subjected to single-laboratory and multi-laboratory validation studies, gaining acceptance as official methods of analysis and approval for use in some countries as official control testing methods. The majority of validation studies conducted to date do not, however, incorporate shellfish species sourced from Latin America. Consequently, this study sought to investigate the performance of five alternative PSP testing methods together with the MBA, comparing the PSP toxin data generated both qualitatively and quantitatively. The methods included a receptor binding assay (RBA), two liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (LC-FLD) methods including both pre-column and post-column oxidation, liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and a commercial lateral flow assay (LFA) from Scotia. A total of three hundred and forty-nine shellfish samples from Argentina, Mexico, Chile and Uruguay were assessed. For the majority of samples, qualitative results compared well between methods. Good statistical correlations were demonstrated between the majority of quantitative results, with a notably excellent correlation between the current EU reference method using pre-column oxidation LC-FLD and LC-MS/MS. The LFA showed great potential for qualitative determination of PSP toxins, although the findings of high numbers of false-positive results and two false negatives highlighted that some caution is still needed when interpreting results. This study demonstrated that effective replacement methods are available for countries that no longer wish to use the MBA, but highlighted the importance of comparing toxin data from the replacement method using local shellfish species of concern before implementing new methods in official control testing programs.
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11
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Cusick KD, Widder EA. Bioluminescence and toxicity as driving factors in harmful algal blooms: Ecological functions and genetic variability. HARMFUL ALGAE 2020; 98:101850. [PMID: 33129462 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2019] [Revised: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Dinoflagellates are an ecologically important group of marine microbial eukaryotes with a remarkable array of adaptive strategies. It is ironic that two of the traits for which dinoflagellates are best known, toxin production and bioluminescence, are rarely linked when considering the ecological significance of either. Although dinoflagellate species that form some of the most widespread and frequent harmful algal blooms (HABs) are bioluminescent, the molecular and eco-evolutionary associations between these two traits has received little attention. Here, the major themes of biochemistry and genetics, ecological functions, signaling mechanisms, and evolution are addressed, with parallels and connections drawn between the two. Of the 17 major classes of dinoflagellate toxins, only two are produced by bioluminescent species: saxitoxin (STX) and yessotoxin. Of these, STX has been extensively studied, including the identification of the STX biosynthetic genes. While numerous theories have been put forward as to the eco-evolutionary roles of both bioluminescence and toxicity, a general consensus is that both function as grazing deterrents. Thus, both bioluminescence and toxicity may aid in HAB initiation as they alleviate grazing pressure on the HAB species. A large gap in our understanding is the genetic variability among natural bloom populations, as both toxic and non-toxic strains have been isolated from the same geographic location. The same applies to bioluminescence, as there exist both bioluminescent and non-bioluminescent strains of the same species. Recent evidence demonstrating that blooms are not monoclonal events necessitates a greater level of understanding as to the genetic variability of these traits among sub-populations as well as the mechanisms by which cells acquire or lose the trait, as sequence analysis of STX+ and STX- species indicate the key gene required for toxicity is lost rather than gained. While the extent of genetic variability for both bioluminescence and toxicity among natural HAB sub-populations remains unknown, it is an area that needs to be explored in order to gain greater insights into the molecular mechanisms and environmental parameters driving HAB evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen D Cusick
- University of Maryland Baltimore County, Department of Biological Sciences, 1000 Hilltop Circle, Baltimore, MD 21250, United States.
| | - Edith A Widder
- Ocean Research and Conservation Association, 1420 Seaway Dr, Fort Pierce, FL 34949, United States.
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12
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Recent findings of paralytic shellfish toxins linked to the genus Alexandrium Halim in Mediterranean mollusc production areas. Toxicon 2019; 174:48-56. [PMID: 31989929 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.12.157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Revised: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish poisoning is a human intoxication syndrome associated with the consumption of seafood that has been contaminated with paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), a group of natural neurotoxic alkaloids produced by marine dinoflagellates, including some Alexandrium species. This study presents findings of PSTs in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) during 2018-2019 in several mollusc production areas of Sardinia (Italy, western Mediterranean). Investigations of the presence and abundance of PST-producing microalgal species in marine water and of the toxins associated with shellfish were carried out concomitantly. Overall, the results suggested a spatio-temporal expansion of Alexandriumpacificum and Alexandriumminutum in recent years, with an increasing number of PSTs present in molluscs and increased occurrences of toxicity cases. Liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection determined the toxin profile to be composed primarily of the carbamate gonyautoxin-5 and N-sulphocarbamoyltoxins 1 and 2. The study highlights the potential high risk to consumers of poisoning by bivalve molluscs bred in Sardinia, where shellfish production is a very important industrial sector. For this reason, routine monitoring is strongly recommended in order to mitigate any harm to human health as well as negative socio-economic consequences.
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13
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Marine Toxins and Nociception: Potential Therapeutic Use in the Treatment of Visceral Pain Associated with Gastrointestinal Disorders. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11080449. [PMID: 31370176 PMCID: PMC6723473 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11080449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Revised: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Visceral pain, of which the pathogenic basis is currently largely unknown, is a hallmark symptom of both functional disorders, such as irritable bowel syndrome, and inflammatory bowel disease. Intrinsic sensory neurons in the enteric nervous system and afferent sensory neurons of the dorsal root ganglia, connecting with the central nervous system, represent the primary neuronal pathways transducing gut visceral pain. Current pharmacological therapies have several limitations, owing to their partial efficacy and the generation of severe adverse effects. Numerous cellular targets of visceral nociception have been recognized, including, among others, channels (i.e., voltage-gated sodium channels, VGSCs, voltage-gated calcium channels, VGCCs, Transient Receptor Potential, TRP, and Acid-sensing ion channels, ASICs) and neurotransmitter pathways (i.e., GABAergic pathways), which represent attractive targets for the discovery of novel drugs. Natural biologically active compounds, such as marine toxins, able to bind with high affinity and selectivity to different visceral pain molecular mediators, may represent a useful tool (1) to improve our knowledge of the physiological and pathological relevance of each nociceptive target, and (2) to discover therapeutically valuable molecules. In this review we report the most recent literature describing the effects of marine toxin on gastrointestinal visceral pain pathways and the possible clinical implications in the treatment of chronic pain associated with gut diseases.
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14
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Turner AD, Hatfield RG, Maskrey BH, Algoet M, Lawrence JF. Evaluation of the new European Union reference method for paralytic shellfish toxins in shellfish: A review of twelve years regulatory monitoring using pre-column oxidation LC-FLD. Trends Analyt Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2019.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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15
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Turner AD, Dhanji-Rapkova M, Dean K, Milligan S, Hamilton M, Thomas J, Poole C, Haycock J, Spelman-Marriott J, Watson A, Hughes K, Marr B, Dixon A, Coates L. Fatal Canine Intoxications Linked to the Presence of Saxitoxins in Stranded Marine Organisms Following Winter Storm Activity. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E94. [PMID: 29495385 PMCID: PMC5869382 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10030094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Revised: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
At the start of 2018, multiple incidents of dog illnesses were reported following consumption of marine species washed up onto the beaches of eastern England after winter storms. Over a two-week period, nine confirmed illnesses including two canine deaths were recorded. Symptoms in the affected dogs included sickness, loss of motor control, and muscle paralysis. Samples of flatfish, starfish, and crab from the beaches in the affected areas were analysed for a suite of naturally occurring marine neurotoxins of dinoflagellate origin. Toxins causing paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) were detected and quantified using two independent chemical testing methods in samples of all three marine types, with concentrations over 14,000 µg saxitoxin (STX) eq/kg found in one starfish sample. Further evidence for PSP intoxication of the dogs was obtained with the positive identification of PSP toxins in a vomited crab sample from one deceased dog and in gastrointestinal samples collected post mortem from a second affected dog. Together, this is the first report providing evidence of starfish being implicated in a PSP intoxication case and the first report of PSP in canines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Monika Dhanji-Rapkova
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Karl Dean
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Steven Milligan
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Mike Hamilton
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Julie Thomas
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Chris Poole
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Jo Haycock
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Jo Spelman-Marriott
- Taverham Veterinary Hospital, Fir Covert Road, Taverham, Norwich, Norfolk NR8 6HT, UK.
| | - Alice Watson
- Taverham Veterinary Hospital, Fir Covert Road, Taverham, Norwich, Norfolk NR8 6HT, UK.
| | - Katherine Hughes
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK.
| | - Bridget Marr
- Environment Agency, Dragonfly House, 2 Gilders Way, Norwich, Norfolk NR3 1UB, UK.
| | - Alan Dixon
- North Norfolk District Council, Holt Road, Cromer, Norfolk, NR27 9EN, UK.
| | - Lewis Coates
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
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16
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Assessing the presence of marine toxins in bivalve molluscs from southwest India. Toxicon 2017; 140:147-156. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Revised: 11/01/2017] [Accepted: 11/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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17
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Durán-Riveroll LM, Cembella AD. Guanidinium Toxins and Their Interactions with Voltage-Gated Sodium Ion Channels. Mar Drugs 2017; 15:E303. [PMID: 29027912 PMCID: PMC5666411 DOI: 10.3390/md15100303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Revised: 09/14/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Guanidinium toxins, such as saxitoxin (STX), tetrodotoxin (TTX) and their analogs, are naturally occurring alkaloids with divergent evolutionary origins and biogeographical distribution, but which share the common chemical feature of guanidinium moieties. These guanidinium groups confer high biological activity with high affinity and ion flux blockage capacity for voltage-gated sodium channels (NaV). Members of the STX group, known collectively as paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), are produced among three genera of marine dinoflagellates and about a dozen genera of primarily freshwater or brackish water cyanobacteria. In contrast, toxins of the TTX group occur mainly in macrozoa, particularly among puffer fish, several species of marine invertebrates and a few terrestrial amphibians. In the case of TTX and analogs, most evidence suggests that symbiotic bacteria are the origin of the toxins, although endogenous biosynthesis independent from bacteria has not been excluded. The evolutionary origin of the biosynthetic genes for STX and analogs in dinoflagellates and cyanobacteria remains elusive. These highly potent molecules have been the subject of intensive research since the latter half of the past century; first to study the mode of action of their toxigenicity, and later as tools to characterize the role and structure of NaV channels, and finally as therapeutics. Their pharmacological activities have provided encouragement for their use as therapeutants for ion channel-related pathologies, such as pain control. The functional role in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems for both groups of toxins is unproven, although plausible mechanisms of ion channel regulation and chemical defense are often invoked. Molecular approaches and the development of improved detection methods will yield deeper understanding of their physiological and ecological roles. This knowledge will facilitate their further biotechnological exploitation and point the way towards development of pharmaceuticals and therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena M Durán-Riveroll
- CONACYT-Instituto de Ciencias del Mary Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico 04510, Mexico.
| | - Allan D Cembella
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar-und Meeresforschung, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
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18
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McLeod C, Dowsett N, Hallegraeff G, Harwood DT, Hay B, Ibbott S, Malhi N, Murray S, Smith K, Tan J, Turnbull A. Accumulation and depuration of paralytic shellfish toxins by Australian abalone Haliotis rubra : Conclusive association with Gymnodinium catenatum dinoflagellate blooms. Food Control 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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19
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Turner LM, Alsterberg C, Turner AD, Girisha SK, Rai A, Havenhand JN, Venugopal MN, Karunasagar I, Godhe A. Pathogenic marine microbes influence the effects of climate change on a commercially important tropical bivalve. Sci Rep 2016; 6:32413. [PMID: 27576351 PMCID: PMC5006160 DOI: 10.1038/srep32413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 08/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
There is growing evidence that climate change will increase the prevalence of toxic algae and harmful bacteria, which can accumulate in marine bivalves. However, we know little about any possible interactions between exposure to these microorganisms and the effects of climate change on bivalve health, or about how this may affect the bivalve toxin-pathogen load. In mesocosm experiments, mussels, Perna viridis, were subjected to simulated climate change (warming and/or hyposalinity) and exposed to harmful bacteria and/or toxin-producing dinoflagellates. We found significant interactions between climate change and these microbes on metabolic and/or immunobiological function and toxin-pathogen load in mussels. Surprisingly, however, these effects were virtually eliminated when mussels were exposed to both harmful microorganisms simultaneously. This study is the first to examine the effects of climate change on determining mussel toxin-pathogen load in an ecologically relevant, multi-trophic context. The results may have considerable implications for seafood safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy M Turner
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Box 461, SE 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Christian Alsterberg
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Box 461, SE 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - S K Girisha
- Department of Fishery Microbiology, Karnataka Veterinary Animal and Fisheries Sciences University, College of Fisheries, Mangalore, 575002, India
| | - Ashwin Rai
- Department of Fishery Microbiology, Karnataka Veterinary Animal and Fisheries Sciences University, College of Fisheries, Mangalore, 575002, India
| | - Jonathan N Havenhand
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Box 461, SE 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - M N Venugopal
- Department of Fishery Microbiology, Karnataka Veterinary Animal and Fisheries Sciences University, College of Fisheries, Mangalore, 575002, India
| | - Indrani Karunasagar
- UNESCO-MIRCEN for Medical and Marine Biotechnology, Nitte University Centre for Science Education and Research (NUCSER), Nitte University, Mangalore 575018, India
| | - Anna Godhe
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Box 461, SE 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
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20
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Penna A, Perini F, Dell'Aversano C, Capellacci S, Tartaglione L, Giacobbe MG, Casabianca S, Fraga S, Ciminiello P, Scardi M. The sxt Gene and Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins as Markers for the Monitoring of Toxic Alexandrium Species Blooms. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:14230-14238. [PMID: 26580419 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b03298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) is a serious human illness caused by the ingestion of seafood contaminated with saxitoxin and its derivatives (STXs). These toxins are produced by some species of marine dinoflagellates within the genus Alexandrium. In the Mediterranean Sea, toxic Alexandrium spp. blooms, especially of A. minutum, are frequent and intense with negative impact to coastal ecosystem, aquaculture practices and other economic activities. We conducted a large scale study on the sxt gene and toxin distribution and content in toxic dinoflagellate A. minutum of the Mediterranean Sea using both quantitative PCR (qPCR) and HILIC-HRMS techniques. We developed a new qPCR assay for the estimation of the sxtA1 gene copy number in seawater samples during a bloom event in Syracuse Bay (Mediterranean Sea) with an analytical sensitivity of 2.0 × 10° sxtA1 gene copy number per reaction. The linear correlation between sxtA1 gene copy number and microalgal abundance and between the sxtA1 gene and STX content allowed us to rapidly determine the STX-producing cell concentrations of two Alexandrium species in environmental samples. In these samples, the amount of sxtA1 gene was in the range of 1.38 × 10(5) - 2.55 × 10(8) copies/L and the STX concentrations ranged from 41-201 nmol/L. This study described a potential PSP scenario in the Mediterranean Sea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Penna
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino , Pesaro, Italy
- Institute of Marine Sciences, ISMAR - CNR , Ancona, Italy
| | - Federico Perini
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino , Pesaro, Italy
- Institute of Marine Sciences, ISMAR - CNR , Ancona, Italy
| | | | - Samuela Capellacci
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino , Pesaro, Italy
| | | | | | - Silvia Casabianca
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino , Pesaro, Italy
| | - Santiago Fraga
- Centro Oceanografico de Vigo, Instituto Espanol de Oceanografıa (IEO) , Vigo, Spain
| | | | - Michele Scardi
- Department of Biology, University of Tor Vergata , Rome, Italy
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21
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Farrell H, Seebacher F, O'Connor W, Zammit A, Harwood DT, Murray S. Warm temperature acclimation impacts metabolism of paralytic shellfish toxins from Alexandrium minutum in commercial oysters. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2015; 21:3402-3413. [PMID: 26032975 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.12952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2015] [Accepted: 03/24/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Species of Alexandrium produce potent neurotoxins termed paralytic shellfish toxins and are expanding their ranges worldwide, concurrent with increases in sea surface temperature. The metabolism of molluscs is temperature dependent, and increases in ocean temperature may influence both the abundance and distribution of Alexandrium and the dynamics of toxin uptake and depuration in shellfish. Here, we conducted a large-scale study of the effect of temperature on the uptake and depuration of paralytic shellfish toxins in three commercial oysters (Saccostrea glomerata and diploid and triploid Crassostrea gigas, n = 252 per species/ploidy level). Oysters were acclimated to two constant temperatures, reflecting current and predicted climate scenarios (22 and 27 °C), and fed a diet including the paralytic shellfish toxin-producing species Alexandrium minutum. While the oysters fed on A. minutum in similar quantities, concentrations of the toxin analogue GTX1,4 were significantly lower in warm-acclimated S. glomerata and diploid C. gigas after 12 days. Following exposure to A. minutum, toxicity of triploid C. gigas was not affected by temperature. Generally, detoxification rates were reduced in warm-acclimated oysters. The routine metabolism of the oysters was not affected by the toxins, but a significant effect was found at a cellular level in diploid C. gigas. The increasing incidences of Alexandrium blooms worldwide are a challenge for shellfish food safety regulation. Our findings indicate that rising ocean temperatures may reduce paralytic shellfish toxin accumulation in two of the three oyster types; however, they may persist for longer periods in oyster tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazel Farrell
- School Plant Functional Ecology and Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, 2007, Australia
- Sydney Institute of Marine Sciences, Chowder Bay Rd, Mosman, NSW, 2088, Australia
- NSW Food Authority, 6 Avenue of the Americas, Newington, NSW, 2127, Australia
| | - Frank Seebacher
- Integrative Physiology, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Sydney, Heydon Laurence Building A08, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Wayne O'Connor
- Department of Primary Industries, Port Stephens Fisheries Institute, Locked Bag 1, Nelson Bay, NSW, 2315, Australia
| | - Anthony Zammit
- NSW Food Authority, 6 Avenue of the Americas, Newington, NSW, 2127, Australia
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
| | - Shauna Murray
- School Plant Functional Ecology and Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, 2007, Australia
- Sydney Institute of Marine Sciences, Chowder Bay Rd, Mosman, NSW, 2088, Australia
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Murray SA, Diwan R, Orr RJS, Kohli GS, John U. Gene duplication, loss and selection in the evolution of saxitoxin biosynthesis in alveolates. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2015; 92:165-80. [PMID: 26140862 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2015.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2015] [Revised: 06/01/2015] [Accepted: 06/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A group of marine dinoflagellates (Alveolata, Eukaryota), consisting of ∼10 species of the genus Alexandrium, Gymnodinium catenatum and Pyrodinium bahamense, produce the toxin saxitoxin and its analogues (STX), which can accumulate in shellfish, leading to ecosystem and human health impacts. The genes, sxt, putatively involved in STX biosynthesis, have recently been identified, however, the evolution of these genes within dinoflagellates is not clear. There are two reasons for this: uncertainty over the phylogeny of dinoflagellates; and that the sxt genes of many species of Alexandrium and other dinoflagellate genera are not known. Here, we determined the phylogeny of STX-producing and other dinoflagellates based on a concatenated eight-gene alignment. We determined the presence, diversity and phylogeny of sxtA, domains A1 and A4 and sxtG in 52 strains of Alexandrium, and a further 43 species of dinoflagellates and thirteen other alveolates. We confirmed the presence and high sequence conservation of sxtA, domain A4, in 40 strains (35 Alexandrium, 1 Pyrodinium, 4 Gymnodinium) of 8 species of STX-producing dinoflagellates, and absence from non-producing species. We found three paralogs of sxtA, domain A1, and a widespread distribution of sxtA1 in non-STX producing dinoflagellates, indicating duplication events in the evolution of this gene. One paralog, clade 2, of sxtA1 may be particularly related to STX biosynthesis. Similarly, sxtG appears to be generally restricted to STX-producing species, while three amidinotransferase gene paralogs were found in dinoflagellates. We investigated the role of positive (diversifying) selection following duplication in sxtA1 and sxtG, and found negative selection in clades of sxtG and sxtA1, clade 2, suggesting they were functionally constrained. Significant episodic diversifying selection was found in some strains in clade 3 of sxtA1, a clade that may not be involved in STX biosynthesis, indicating pressure for diversification of function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shauna A Murray
- Plant Functional Biology and Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia; Sydney Institute of Marine Science, Chowder Bay Rd, Mosman, NSW, Australia.
| | - Rutuja Diwan
- Plant Functional Biology and Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia; Sydney Institute of Marine Science, Chowder Bay Rd, Mosman, NSW, Australia
| | - Russell J S Orr
- Section for Genetics and Evolutionary Biology, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Norway
| | - Gurjeet S Kohli
- Plant Functional Biology and Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Uwe John
- Section Ecological Chemistry, Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven, Germany
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23
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Boundy MJ, Selwood AI, Harwood DT, McNabb PS, Turner AD. Development of a sensitive and selective liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry method for high throughput analysis of paralytic shellfish toxins using graphitised carbon solid phase extraction. J Chromatogr A 2015; 1387:1-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2015.01.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Revised: 01/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/30/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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24
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Paralytic shellfish toxins, including deoxydecarbamoyl-STX, in wild-caught Tasmanian abalone (Haliotis rubra). Toxicon 2014; 90:213-25. [PMID: 25157803 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.08.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2014] [Revised: 08/11/2014] [Accepted: 08/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
For the first time wild-caught Tasmanian abalone, Haliotis rubra, have been reported to contain paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs). This observation followed blooms of the toxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum. No illnesses were reported, but harvesting restrictions were enforced in commercial areas. Abalone were assayed using HPLC-FLD methodology based on AOAC official method 2005.06. An uncommon congener, deoxydecarbamoyl-STX (doSTX), was observed in addition to regulated PSTs as unassigned chromatographic peaks. A quantitative reference material was prepared from contaminated Tasmanian abalone viscera and ampouled at 54.2 μmol/L. The LD50 of doSTX via intraperitoneal injection was 1069 nmol/kg (95% confidence limits 983-1100 nmol/kg), indicating it is nearly 40 times less toxic than STX. A toxicity equivalence factor of 0.042 was generated using the mouse bioassay. Levels of PSTs varied among individuals from the same site, although the toxin profile remained relatively consistent. In the foot tissue, STX, decarbamoyl-STX and doSTX were identified. On a molar basis doSTX was the dominant congener in both foot and viscera samples. The viscera toxin profile was more complex, with other less toxic PST congeners observed and was similar to mussels from the same site. This finding implicates localised dinoflagellate blooms as the PST source in Tasmanian abalone.
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25
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Murray SA, Hoppenrath M, Orr RJS, Bolch C, John U, Diwan R, Yauwenas R, Harwood T, de Salas M, Neilan B, Hallegraeff G. Alexandrium diversaporum sp. nov., a new non-saxitoxin producing species: Phylogeny, morphology and sxtA genes. HARMFUL ALGAE 2014; 31:54-65. [PMID: 28040111 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2013.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2013] [Revised: 09/16/2013] [Accepted: 09/16/2013] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Species of the PST producing planktonic marine dinoflagellate genus Alexandrium have been intensively scrutinised, and it is therefore surprising that new taxa can still be found. Here we report a new species, Alexandrium diversaporum nov. sp., isolated from spherical cysts found at two sites in Tasmania, Australia. This species differs in its morphology from all previously reported Alexandrium species, possessing a unique combination of morphological features: the presence of 2 size classes of thecal pores on the cell surface, a medium cell size, the size and shape of the 6″, 1', 2⁗ and Sp plates, the lack of a ventral pore, a lack of anterior and posterior connecting pores, and a lack of chain formation. We determined the relationship of the two strains to other species of Alexandrium based on an alignment of concatenated SSU-ITS1, 5.8S, ITS2 and partial LSU ribosomal RNA sequences, and found A. diversaporum to be a sister group to Alexandrium leei with high support. A. leei shares several morphological features, including the relative size and shapes of the 6″, 1', 2⁗ and Sp plates and the fact that some strains of A. leei have two size classes of thecal pores. We examined A. diversaporum strains for saxitoxin production and found them to be non-toxic. The species lacked sequences for the domain A4 of sxtA, as has been previously found for non-saxitoxin producing species of Alexandrium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shauna A Murray
- Sydney Institute of Marine Science, Chowder Bay Road, Mosman, NSW, Australia; School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
| | - Mona Hoppenrath
- Senckenberg Research Institute, Senckenberg am Meer, German Center for Marine Biodiversity Research (DZMB), Südstrand 44, D-26382 Wilhelmshaven, Germany
| | - Russell J S Orr
- Microbial Evolution Research Group, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Christopher Bolch
- National Centre for Marine Conservation and Resource Sustainability, Australian Maritime College, University of Tasmania, Locked Bag 1370, Launceston, Tasmania 7250, Australia
| | - Uwe John
- Section Ecological Chemistry, Alfred-Wegener-Institut Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Rutuja Diwan
- Sydney Institute of Marine Science, Chowder Bay Road, Mosman, NSW, Australia
| | - Rouna Yauwenas
- Sydney Institute of Marine Science, Chowder Bay Road, Mosman, NSW, Australia
| | - Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand
| | - Miguel de Salas
- Tasmanian Herbarium, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 4, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
| | - Brett Neilan
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Gustaaf Hallegraeff
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
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Farrell H, Brett S, Ajani P, Murray S. Distribution of the genus Alexandrium (Halim) and paralytic shellfish toxins along the coastline of New South Wales, Australia. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2013; 72:133-145. [PMID: 23743270 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2013] [Revised: 04/07/2013] [Accepted: 04/08/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Blooms of Alexandrium species, in particular the species Alexandrium catenella, accounted for more than 50% of algal related, shellfish aquaculture harvest zone closures in New South Wales (NSW) Australia since 2005. While there are indications that species of Alexandrium are more abundant than they were formerly, there is little data available on the spatial and temporal distribution and abundance of the genus in NSW. A six and a half year dataset comprising a total of 8649 fortnightly samples from 31 estuaries spread over 2000 km of NSW coastline was analysed. The greatest abundances of Alexandrium spp. were observed during the austral Spring and Summer, in estuaries in the mid and southern latitudes of the state. In identifying these high risk zones, we propose variables such as season, temperature, rainfall and estuarine flushing to be targeted in intensive site specific studies, to support the development of predictive tools for resource managers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazel Farrell
- Sydney Institute of Marine Sciences, Chowder Bay Road, Mosman, NSW 2088, Australia.
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Benkendorff K. Molluscan biological and chemical diversity: secondary metabolites and medicinal resources produced by marine molluscs. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2011; 85:757-75. [PMID: 20105155 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-185x.2010.00124.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The phylum Mollusca represents an enormous diversity of species with eight distinct classes. This review provides a taxonomic breakdown of the published research on marine molluscan natural products and the medicinal products currently derived from molluscs, in order to identify priority targets and strategies for future research. Some marine gastropods and bivalves have been of great interest to natural products chemists, yielding a diversity of chemical classes and several drug leads currently in clinical trials. Molluscs also feature prominently in a broad range of traditional natural medicines, although the active ingredients in the taxa involved are typically unknown. Overall secondary metabolites have only been investigated from a tiny proportion (<1%) of molluscan species. At the class level, the number of species subject to chemical studies mirrors species richness and our relative knowledge of the biology of different taxa. The majority of molluscan natural products research is focused within one of the major groups of gastropods, the opisthobranchs (a subgroup of Heterobranchia), which are primarily comprised of soft-bodied marine molluscs. Conversely, most molluscan medicines are derived from shelled gastropods and bivalves. The complete disregard for several minor classes of molluscs is unjustified based on their evolutionary history and unique life styles, which may have led to novel pathways for secondary metabolism. The Polyplacophora, in particular, have been identified as worthy of future investigation given their use in traditional South African medicines and their abundance in littoral ecosystems. As bioactive compounds are not always constitutively expressed in molluscs, future research should be targeted towards biosynthetic organs and inducible defence reactions for specific medicinal applications. Given the lack of an acquired immune system, the use of bioactive secondary metabolites is likely to be ubiquitous throughout the Mollusca and broadening the search field may uncover interesting novel chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten Benkendorff
- School of Biological Sciences, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100 Adeliade, 5001, SA, Australia.
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28
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Highly Toxic Microcystis aeruginosa Strain, Isolated from São Paulo—Brazil, Produce Hepatotoxins and Paralytic Shellfish Poison Neurotoxins. Neurotox Res 2010; 19:389-402. [DOI: 10.1007/s12640-010-9177-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2009] [Revised: 03/18/2010] [Accepted: 03/20/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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29
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Food poisoning due to consumption of the marine gastropod Plicopurpura columellaris in El Salvador. Toxicon 2009; 54:895-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.06.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2009] [Revised: 06/11/2009] [Accepted: 06/22/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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30
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Differential accumulation of paralytic shellfish toxins from Alexandrium minutum in the pearl oyster, Pinctada imbricata. Toxicon 2009; 54:217-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2009] [Revised: 04/03/2009] [Accepted: 04/06/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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31
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Vale P, Rangel I, Silva B, Coelho P, Vilar A. Atypical profiles of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins in shellfish from Luanda and Mussulo bays, Angola. Toxicon 2009; 53:176-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2008.10.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2008] [Revised: 10/20/2008] [Accepted: 10/24/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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32
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Blunt JW, Copp BR, Hu WP, Munro MHG, Northcote PT, Prinsep MR. Marine natural products. Nat Prod Rep 2008; 25:35-94. [PMID: 18250897 DOI: 10.1039/b701534h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 284] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
This review covers the literature published in 2006 for marine natural products, with 758 citations (534 for the period January to December 2006) referring to compounds isolated from marine microorganisms and phytoplankton, green algae, brown algae, red algae, sponges, cnidaria, bryozoans, molluscs, tunicates and echinoderms. The emphasis is on new compounds (779 for 2006), together with their relevant biological activities, source organisms and country of origin. Biosynthetic studies, first syntheses, and syntheses that lead to the revision of structures or stereochemistries, have been included.
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Affiliation(s)
- John W Blunt
- Department of Chemistry, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand.
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33
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Zimmer RK, Ferrer RP. Neuroecology, chemical defense, and the keystone species concept. THE BIOLOGICAL BULLETIN 2007; 213:208-225. [PMID: 18083963 DOI: 10.2307/25066641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Neuroecology unifies principles from diverse disciplines, scaling from biophysical properties of nerve and muscle cells to community-wide impacts of trophic interactions. Here, these principles are used as a common fabric, woven from threads of chemosensory physiology, behavior, and population and community ecology. The "keystone species" concept, for example, is seminal in ecological theory. It defines a species whose impacts on communities are far greater than would be predicted from its relative abundance and biomass. Similarly, neurotoxins could function in keystone roles. They are rare within natural habitats but exert strong effects on species interactions at multiple trophic levels. Effects of two guanidine alkaloids, tetrodotoxin (TTX) and saxitoxin (STX), coalesce neurobiological and ecological perspectives. These molecules compose some of the most potent natural poisons ever described, and they are introduced into communities by one, or only a few, host species. Functioning as voltage-gated sodium channel blockers for nerve and muscle cells, TTX and STX serve in chemical defense. When borrowed by resistant consumer species, however, they are used either in chemical defense against higher order predators or for chemical communication as chemosensory excitants. Cascading effects of the compounds profoundly impact community-wide attributes, including species compositions and rates of material exchange. Thus, a diverse array of physiological traits, expressed differentially across many species, renders TTX and STX fully functional as keystone molecules, with vast ecological consequences at multiple trophic levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard K Zimmer
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1606, USA.
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Fleming JJ, McReynolds MD, Du Bois J. (+)-saxitoxin: a first and second generation stereoselective synthesis. J Am Chem Soc 2007; 129:9964-75. [PMID: 17658800 DOI: 10.1021/ja071501o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A stereoselective synthesis of the bis-guanidinium toxin (+)-saxitoxin (STX), the agent infamously associated with red tides and paralytic shellfish poisoning, is described. Our approach to this unique natural product advances through an unusual nine-membered ring guanidine intermediate 39 en route to the tricyclic skeleton that defines STX. The effectiveness of this strategy is notable, as only four steps are needed to transform 39 into the target molecule, including a four-electron alkene oxidation catalyzed by OsCl3. Construction of the critical monocyclic guanidine has been achieved through two channels, the first of which makes use of Rh-catalyzed C-H amination and highlights a novel class of heterocyclic N,O-acetals as iminium ion equivalents for crafting functionalized amines. A second route to 39 relies on a stereoselective acetylide dianion addition to a serine-based nitrone, thereby facilitating the preparation of STX in just 14 linear steps from commercial material.
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Affiliation(s)
- James J Fleming
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-0080, USA
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35
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Camacho FG, Rodríguez JG, Mirón AS, García MCC, Belarbi EH, Chisti Y, Grima EM. Biotechnological significance of toxic marine dinoflagellates. Biotechnol Adv 2006; 25:176-94. [PMID: 17208406 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2006.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2006] [Accepted: 11/28/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Dinoflagellates are microalgae that are associated with the production of many marine toxins. These toxins poison fish, other wildlife and humans. Dinoflagellate-associated human poisonings include paralytic shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, and ciguatera fish poisoning. Dinoflagellate toxins and bioactives are of increasing interest because of their commercial impact, influence on safety of seafood, and potential medical and other applications. This review discusses biotechnological methods of identifying toxic dinoflagellates and detecting their toxins. Potential applications of the toxins are discussed. A lack of sufficient quantities of toxins for investigational purposes remains a significant limitation. Producing quantities of dinoflagellate bioactives requires an ability to mass culture them. Considerations relating to bioreactor culture of generally fragile and slow-growing dinoflagellates are discussed. Production and processing of dinoflagellates to extract bioactives, require attention to biosafety considerations as outlined in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Garcia Camacho
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain.
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36
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Llewellyn LE. Saxitoxin, a toxic marine natural product that targets a multitude of receptors. Nat Prod Rep 2006; 23:200-22. [PMID: 16572228 DOI: 10.1039/b501296c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 239] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Saxitoxin (STX) was discovered early last century and can contaminate seafood and drinking water, and over time has become an invaluable research tool and an internationally regulated chemical weapon. Among natural products, toxins obtain a unique reputation from their high affinity and selectivity for their target pharmacological receptor, which for STX has long been considered to only be the voltage gated sodium channel. In recent times however, STX has been discovered to also bind to calcium and potassium channels, neuronal nitric oxide synthase, STX metabolizing enzymes and two circulatory fluid proteins, namely a transferrin-like family of proteins and a unique protein found in the blood of pufferfish.
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