Increasing intolerance of uncertainty over time: the potential influence of increasing connectivity

Intolerance of uncertainty and internet addiction among college students in China post-pandemic era: the mediating role of future anxiety

Due to the repeated changes in the COVID-19 pandemic, we live in an era of various uncertainties that raise future anxiety and behavioral addiction problems. According to the Protection Motivation Theory (PMT), the present study attempted to explore the impact of COVID-19 intolerance of uncertainty (COVID-19 IU) on internet addiction (IA) among college students and the mediating role of future anxiety (FA) by constructing a mediating model. A questionnaire survey was conducted on 679 Chinese college students and PROCESS 3.5 was utilized to test the hypotheses. The results indicated that the COVID-19 IU was significantly positively correlated with IA and FA, and FA was significantly positively correlated with IA. COVID-19 IU had a significant positive predictive effect on IA; FA played a complementary partial mediating role between COVID-19 IU and IA. The results supported the PMT, which not only enriched our understanding of FA under uncertain life circumstances, but also deepened our understanding of the potential mechanisms of the effects of IA. Finally, discussions and suggestions were presented based on the results.

Examining social support and procrastination among college students

The current study investigated how social support may mitigate the risk of procrastination, particularly among those high in intolerance of uncertainty. This study examined associations between personality traits, procrastination, and perceived social support among 394 undergraduate students. Participants completed self-reported measures of intolerance of uncertainty, procrastination, and social support from family, friends, and significant others. Regression analyses revealed a significant interaction between family social support and intolerance of uncertainty in predicting procrastination. Study findings have implications for understanding how familial support resources may reduce risks for procrastination in college students.

Effects of neuroticism on pre-exam irritable bowel syndrome in female middle school students: mediating role of intolerance of uncertainty and moderating role of exercise duration

Background

China, which is deeply influenced by Confucianism, places special emphasis on students' test scores. Previous studies have shown that neuroticism is associated with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) in adolescents. However, the mechanisms underlying this association before exams in female secondary school students are unknown. The present study sought to ascertain whether IU mediates the association between neuroticism and pre-exam IBS, and to determine whether exercise duration moderates the relationship between neuroticism and pre-exam IBS.

Methods

The sample consisted of 685 Chinese female middle school students (Mage = 14.81, SD = 1.55, range = 11-18) who completed paper questionnaires, including the neuroticism subscale of the Chinese Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Five-Factor Inventory, the IBS Symptom Severity Scale, a simplified version of the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale, and a movement time questionnaire. Independent samples t-test was used to compare differences between groups and Pearson correlation coefficient was used to investigate the bivariate correlation. The SPSS PROCESS 4.1 plug-in was then used to examine the mediating role of IU as well as the moderating role of movement time between neuroticism and pre-exam IBS.

Results

Neuroticism and IU were significantly correlated with pre-exam IBS (r = 0.39, 0.30, respectively; all p < 0.01), and neuroticism was significantly correlated with IU (r = 0.46, p < 0.01). Neuroticism had a direct predictive effect on pre-exam IBS in Chinese female middle school students (β = 0.32, p < 0.001), and IU also had a positive effect on pre-exam IBS (β = 0.15, p < 0.001). The mediating effect value of IU on the total effect was 18.09%. The relationship between neuroticism and pre-exam IBS was moderated by movement time (β = -0.23, p < 0.05).

Conclusion

IU plays a mediating role between neuroticism and pre-exam IBS, and exercise time plays a moderating role between neuroticism and pre-exam IBS. These findings provide an evidence for neuroticism intervention, IU management, and pre-exam IBS improvement in female middle school students.

Intolerance of uncertainty as a predictor of anxiety severity and trajectory during the COVID-19 pandemic

BACKGROUND

Efforts to identify risk and resilience factors for anxiety severity and course during the COVID-19 pandemic have focused primarily on demographic rather than psychological variables. Intolerance of uncertainty (IU), a transdiagnostic risk factor for anxiety, may be a particularly relevant vulnerability factor.

METHOD

N = 641 adults with pre-pandemic anxiety data reported their anxiety, IU, and other pandemic and mental health-related variables at least once and up to four times during the COVID-19 pandemic, with assessments beginning in May 2020 through March 2021.

RESULTS

In preregistered analyses using latent growth models, higher IU at the first pandemic timepoint predicted more severe anxiety, but also a sharper decline in anxiety, across timepoints. This finding was robust to the addition of pre-pandemic anxiety and demographic predictors as covariates (in the full sample) as well as pre-pandemic depression severity (in participants for whom pre-pandemic depression data were available). Younger age, lower self/parent education, and self-reported history of COVID-19 illness at the first pandemic timepoint predicted more severe anxiety across timepoints with strong model fit, but did not predict anxiety trajectory.

CONCLUSIONS

IU prospectively predicted more severe anxiety but a sharper decrease in anxiety over time during the pandemic, including after adjustment for covariates. IU therefore appears to have unique and specific predictive utility with respect to anxiety in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.

A moderated chain mediation model examining the relation between smartphone addiction and intolerance of uncertainty among master's and PhD students

The theories of relational regulation and compensatory Internet use suggest that intolerance of uncertainty influences smartphone addiction (SPA), which in turn is influenced by other aspects. This study used previous results to examine how intolerance of uncertainty affects SPA in PhD and master's degree programs. A convenience sample comprising 1727 master's and PhD students (99.9 %; 50.7 % female; Mage = 27.71; SD = 3.80; range = 21-43) was recruited. Using established questionnaires, we measured SPA, anxiety, positive coping style, perceived social support, and intolerance of uncertainty. The results demonstrated that intolerance of uncertainty positively affects SPA in terms of predictive power. Furthermore, anxiety and positive coping style mediate that link in a cascade fashion. A greater SPA indicates that the individual is less likely to use a positive coping style, has a higher anxiety level, and has a lower tolerance for uncertainty. While thinking about how intolerance of uncertainty affects anxiety and positive coping style, perceived social support mediates the relationship. Intolerance of uncertainty has less impact on anxiety and positive coping style when perceived social support is high. These results indicate the possibility of examining SPA prevention and intervention from several angles. Therefore, emotional regulation, which modifies anxiety and the tendency to use a positive coping style, may reduce the impact of intolerance of uncertainty on SPA. Another successful strategy for reducing smartphone addiction is to provide social support from loved ones and the community at large.

A Transdiagnostic Model for Depression, Anxiety, and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

ABSTRACT

Depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and anxiety disorders (ADs) can seriously impair functionality. Studies have shown that there are common mechanisms in the emergence of these disorders. This study discussed unpredictability beliefs, family unpredictability, locus of control, intolerance of uncertainty, emotional regulation difficulties, and coping styles. In this study, a model created with these transdiagnostic variables that play a role in the emergence of depression, OCD, and ADs was tested. The sample of the study consisted of 795 people. The model explained a significant part of the variance in psychological symptoms. In addition to various limitations, it is thought that this study has important contributions to the field by examining the relationships between unpredictability beliefs and various variables for the first time, and bringing together many transdiagnostic factors related to psychological symptoms. In addition, it provides valuable information for clinicians as it provides a basis for intervention programs targeting many transdiagnostic mechanisms.

Is everything really okay?: Using ecological momentary assessment to evaluate daily co-fluctuations in anxiety and reassurance seeking

OBJECTIVE

Reassurance seeking, a behavior prominent in anxiety disorders and depression, is associated with poorer quality of interpersonal relationships and acts as a mechanism of stress generation. However, little research has elucidated momentary associations between state anxiety and reassurance seeking behaviors.

METHOD

In a sample of 104 university-affiliated young adults, we sought to replicate cross-sectional associations of reassurance seeking with trait anxiety (Aim 1) and intolerance of uncertainty (Aim 2). We then used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to evaluate concurrent fluctuations in daily anxiety and reassurance seeking across 14 consecutive days (Aim 3). Hierarchical multi-level models for intensive longitudinal data were used to evaluate the relationship between state anxiety and daily reassurance seeking.

RESULTS

In baseline analyses, trait anxiety and intolerance of uncertainty were significantly associated with greater trait reassurance seeking, controlling for depression. Analyses of the EMA data showed that daily reassurance seeking behaviors fluctuated concurrently with daily anxiety during the 14 days, while controlling for trait anxiety and depression.

CONCLUSION

Given evidence of concurrent fluctuations between state anxiety and reassurance seeking, the behavior should be considered as a potential target in treatment for anxiety disorders.

Are Cyberchondria and Intolerance of Uncertainty Related to Smartphone Addiction?

Smartphones are a medium for performing online activities, and one such activity could be the compulsive online health information search - cyberchondria. This study aimed to test whether cyberchondria and intolerance of uncertainty (IU) positively predict smartphone addiction (SA), adjusted for age, gender, daily use duration, the reason for using smartphones, and symptoms of anxiety and depression. The sample consisted of 471 adults (55.2% women) from the general population without chronic diseases (Mage = 38.67). Regression analysis showed that IU was a positive predictor of SA (β = .17, p < .001), as well as cyberchondria (β = .14, p < .001), which had a unique contribution to the explanation of SA, relative to IU. Other significant predictors were average daily smartphone use and entertainment use, the latter being the strongest predictor in the model. These results revealed cyberchondria as a unique predictor of SA.

The Relationship between Intolerance of Uncertainty and Problematic Social Media Use during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Serial Mediation Model

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought significant interruptions to life certainty, and there has been a lack of research on the influence of uncertainty. The present research aimed to explore how intolerance of uncertainty, maladaptive coping strategies, and fear of missing out affect social media use in a Chinese community sample (N = 311) during the pandemic. Serial mediation analysis was applied, integrating the mediating role of maladaptive coping strategy and fear of missing out. Intolerance of uncertainty, maladaptive coping strategies, and fear of missing out was positively related to PSMU. Based on the mediation analysis, when age and gender were controlled, the direct effect of intolerance of uncertainty on PSMU was significant. The total indirect effect was also significant. The effect of intolerance of uncertainty on PSMU was mediated by maladaptive coping strategies and fear of missing out. Taken together, maladaptive coping strategies and fear of missing out played a serial mediating role between intolerance of uncertainty and PSMU. The findings imply that strategies to improve the tolerance of uncertainty, reduce fear of missing out, and relevant coping strategies could be potentially helpful in mitigating problematic social media use, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Tolerance for ambiguity, reappraisal, and suppression mediate the relationship between problematic internet use and procrastination

The current scientific literature lacks studies on the relationship between problematic internet use (PIU) and procrastination, especially regarding the mediating mechanisms underlying this relationship. The present study examined the association between procrastination and PIU, as well as determining the mediating roles of tolerance for ambiguity, reappraisal, and suppression. The conceptual model was tested using data collected from 434 Iranian college students. The participants completed a number of psychometric scales assessing procrastination, PIU, tolerance for ambiguity, reappraisal, and suppression. Structural equation modeling was used to test the hypothesized model. Results showed that PIU, tolerance for ambiguity, and suppression were positively associated with procrastination, and that there was a negative association between reappraisal and procrastination. Moreover, the mediation analysis indicated that tolerance for ambiguity, reappraisal, and suppression fully mediated the association between PIU and procrastination. However, it is also possible to interpret the results as suggesting that PIU is unimportant as a predictor for procrastination once mediators are controlled for.

Insomnia Mediate the Influence of Reassurance-Seeking Behavior and Viral Anxiety on Preoccupation With COVID-19 Among the General Population

Background and Objective We explored in this study whether insomnia, viral anxiety, reassurance- seeking behavior, and preoccupation with coronavirus disease (COVID-19) are related among the general population. As well, we explored the possibility that insomnia may mediate the association between COVID-19 viral anxiety and preoccupation.Methods During November 9–15, 2021, 400 participants voluntarily completed this survey, and participants’ age, sex, living location, and marital status were collected. Responses to questions about COVID-19 were also gathered, and their symptoms were rated using the Obsession with COVID-19 Scale (OCS), Coronavirus Reassurance-Seeking Behaviors Scale (CRBS), Fear of COVID-19 scale (FCV-19S), and Insomnia Severity Index (ISI).Results Preoccupation with COVID-19 was predicted by young age (β = -0.08, p = 0.012), CRBS (β = 0.52, p < 0.001), FCV-19S (β = 0.30, p < 0.001), and ISI (β = 0.07, p = 0.029) (adjusted R2 = 0.62, F = 163.6, p < 0.001). Mediation analysis showed that insomnia partially mediates the influence of reassurance seeking behavior and viral anxiety on preoccupation with COVID-19.Conclusions Sleep disturbances can contribute to a vicious cycle of hypochondriacal preoccupation with COVID-19. In order to reduce an individual’s viral anxiety, insomnia symptoms must be addressed.

Phoning It in: Social Anxiety, Intolerance of Uncertainty, and Anxiety Reduction Motivations Predict Phone Use in Social Situations

Based on meta-analysis, a strong link between social anxiety and phone use has been established in the literature, but the underlying mechanisms of why social anxiety might cause people to use their phones are poorly understood. Intolerance of uncertainty is a transdiagnostic factor of many anxiety disorders and may help explain why socially anxious people tend to use their mobile phones as a tool to cope with, or distract from, inherently ambiguous social interactions. This nonexperimental, correlational study had four core aims: to examine whether increases in social anxiety would relate to (1) increased phone usage during social interactions in groups or (2) phone dependency; to examine whether intolerance of uncertainty and motivation of phone use mediated either of these relationships. To test these models, an opportunity sample of 252 participants completed a series of online questionnaires containing measures of social anxiety, intolerance of uncertainty, and phone usage. Correlational analysis of results showed increased phone dependency and phone use in social groups for people with high social anxiety. Serial mediation analysis showed that people who were more socially anxious also reported higher levels of intolerance of uncertainty, greater motives to use phones to reduce anxiety, and higher phone use. We discuss these results with specific reference to compensatory internet use theory. In sum, it appears that for people with social anxiety, phone use in social situations tends to be motivated by reducing anxiety.

Examining the relationship between fear of COVID-19, intolerance for uncertainty, and cyberloafing: A mediational model

After the COVID-19 pandemic began, organizations had to pivot and move to online remote work. As companies moved to digital platforms and technologies for remote working, a key concern was the increase in workplace withdrawal behaviors during the pandemic, including cyberloafing, a form of workplace deviance. Cyberloafing can be described as the action of using the internet for non-work-related activities or personal use during working hours. Given its effect on organizational effectiveness and efficiency, organizations must take measures to minimize cyberloafing. We examined how two factors-fear of COVID-19 and intolerance for uncertainty-were related to cyberloafing during the third lockdown in Israel. A sample of 322 adults who were enrolled in professional courses at a university in Israel were surveyed. Based on Conservation of Resources Theory, our findings suggest that distress significantly mediated the relationship between fear of COVID-19, intolerance for uncertainty, and cyberloafing. In an attempt to deal with the stress and depletion of personal resources during the COVID-19 lockdown, individuals engaged in cyberloafing as a way to handle the stress. Our results suggest that organizations should take measures to reduce fear and uncertainty in order to decrease distress, which, in turn, will reduce cyberloafing.

Mediating Effects of Reassurance-Seeking Behavior or Obsession With COVID-19 on the Association Between Intolerance of Uncertainty and Viral Anxiety Among Healthcare Workers in Korea

BACKGROUND

This study explores whether the intolerance of uncertainty among healthcare workers prompts viral anxiety, and whether this association is mediated by their reassurance-seeking behavior and preoccupation with the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Korea.

METHODS

An online survey was conducted among healthcare workers in Asan Medical Center, on November 29, 2021. Demographic characteristics and responses to items from rating scales were collected, including Stress and Anxiety to Viral Epidemics-9, Coronavirus Reassurance-Seeking Behaviors Scale (CRBS), Obsession with COVID-19 Scale (OCS), Patient Health Questionnaire-9, Insomnia Severity Scale, and Intolerance of Uncertainty-12 (IUS-12).

RESULTS

Among the 329 participants, viral anxiety of healthcare workers was predicted by being female (β = 0.14, P = 0.002), CRBS (β = 0.30, P < 0.001), OCS (β = 0.32, P < 0.001), and IUS-12 (β = 0.15, P = 0.002) scores (adjusted R² = 0.43, F = 31.1, P < 0.001). Mediation analysis showed that the intolerance of uncertainty directly influenced viral anxiety, and reassurance-seeking behavior and obsession with COVID-19 partially mediated the association.

CONCLUSION

The intolerance of uncertainty among healthcare workers directly influenced their viral anxiety, and reassurance-seeking behavior and obsession with COVID-19 mediated this association in this era of "living with coronavirus" in Korea.

Examining boss phubbing and employee outcomes through the lens of affective events theory

Purpose

In this study, the impact of boss phubbing, or using a phone during interaction with subordinates, on important employee outcomes — work meaningfulness and employee phubbing behavior — through the mediating role of self-esteem threat was investigated using affective events theory. The moderating role of rejection sensitivity was also examined.

Design/methodology/approach

Data were collected in three time lags from head nurses (N = 178) working in public and private hospitals. The hypothesized relationships were tested using variance-based structural equation modeling with partial least squares.

Findings

Boss phubbing negatively affected employees' sense of work meaningfulness and had a positive direct and indirect relationship with employee phubbing behavior through self-esteem threat. The hypothesized moderating role of rejection sensitivity was not supported.

Practical implications

The authors recommend that organizations develop policies addressing boss phubbing in the workplace, particularly in contexts in which a high leader–member exchange is desired for organizational effectiveness, such as health-related services. Superiors, such as doctors, should review their mobile phone usage during interactions with subordinates because it is detrimental to employee outcomes.

Originality/value

This study is a nascent attempt to test the hypothesized relationships on the emerging phenomenon of phubbing at work in the human–computer interaction domain in Pakistan, a developing country, particularly in hospital settings where a high leader–member exchange is pivotal.

What's Worrying Our Students? Increasing Worry Levels over Two Decades and a New Measure of Student Worry Frequency and Domains

Background

The frequency and severity of mental health problems in student populations have been a growing cause for concern worldwide, and studies have identified measures of a number of mental health symptoms that have been steadily increasing in frequency and intensity over the past 20-25 years.

Methods

In two studies we investigate the levels and domains of pathological worrying in university student participants. Study 1 is a retrospective study of Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ) data collected between 2001 and 2019. Study 2 describes the development of the Student Worry Questionnaire, a short and easily delivered measure of student worrying that identifies both frequency of worry as well as the student-relevant domains across which worrying occurs.

Results

Study 1 revealed a steady increase in student worry scores of around 20% between 2001 and 2019, with a significant positive correlation between year of data collection and mean PSWQ score. The domain scores in Study 2 indicated that academic work was a significantly higher worry than any of the other domains, and worries about intimate relationships and 'what people think of me' were also worries that scored higher than either financial or health worries.

Conclusions

The present studies indicate that pathological worrying can be added to the list of anxiety- and stress-related symptoms that have been shown to be on the increase in student populations in recent decades, and we discuss whether these increases represent a greater willingness to report symptoms or a genuine increase in experienced symptoms over time.

From checking the door to checking the app: assessment and treatment implications for obsessive-compulsive disorder in the digital era

In the last 20 years, technology is increasingly integrated into daily life. Daily interactions with smart devices have become routine with much of our lives taking place in a digital environment. It is therefore not surprising that the manifestations of psychiatric disorders including Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder have changed in recent years reflecting this reality. Clinicians should be aware of the potential impact of such changes when considering symptom presentation and diagnosis.

The mediating role of fear of COVID-19 in the relationship between intolerance of uncertainty and depression

OBJECTIVES

Living during the COVID-19 pandemic is characterized by the emergence of great uncertainty surrounding multiple aspects of daily life. This study explored the relationship between intolerance of uncertainty (IU) and depression, as well as the potential mediation effect of COVID-19-related fear.

DESIGN AND METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted through an online survey from 10 April until 13 April 2020, three weeks after a national lockdown had been imposed in Greece. The convenience sample used in this study consisted of 2,827 adults. Participants voluntarily provided sociodemographic data and completed the following scales: the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale (IUS-12), the Fear of COVID-19 Scale (FCV-19S), and the Brief Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) Depression Scale.

RESULTS

Participants appeared to be moderately depressed [M = 14.75, SD = 4.52]. There was a significant indirect effect of IU to depressive symptoms ((.058), CI (0.051-0.066)). FCV-19S was tested as a mediator in the relationship between IUS-12 (independent variable) and PHQ-9 (dependent variable). Partial mediation of fear of COVID-19 was supported ((.54) (.41) = 13, CI (0.051-0.066), Sobel z-value = 14.93).

CONCLUSIONS

Depressive symptomatology affected study participants at a moderate level. IU was shown to be a significant predictor of depressive symptomatology with higher levels of IU being associated with more severe depressive symptoms. Fear of COVID-19 partially mediated this association. The mediation effect may be explained by the uncertainty around COVID-19-related health issues, which are reflected in the FCV-19S and cause worry and/or anxiety. Uncertainty related with other factors, such as the impact on the economy and education, not assessed by the FCV-19S, may explain part of the relationship between IU and depressive symptoms that is not mediated by FCV-19S.

PRACTITIONER POINTS

Intolerance of uncertainty is related to depressive symptomatology, and fear of COVID-19 explains part of the relation. Fear of COVID-19 indicates worry and anxiety related to health issues. Psychotherapeutic interventions enhancing individuals' capacity to endure uncertainty could be beneficial. Provision of simple and clear information by the authorities should be a priority issue.

Psychological distress in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic: the joint contribution of intolerance of uncertainty and cyberchondria

OBJECTIVE

To explore the direct and indirect associations between intolerance of uncertainty, health anxiety (HA), and psychological distress through problematic internet use (PIU) and cyberchondria, both before and during the first months of the COVID-19 pandemic.

DESIGN

Two Italian samples were enrolled via an online questionnaire. Sample 1 (N = 556; 69.3% females, M_age 29.6 years, SD = 13.2) was recruited in non-pandemic times, whereas Sample 2 (N = 575; 74% females, M_age 31.9 years, SD = 13.4) was recruited during the COVID-19 lockdown.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Self-report measures assessing HA and psychological distress.

RESULTS

Two distinct path analyses showed that intolerance of uncertainty was directly associated with HA and psychological distress in both samples. Moreover, cyberchondria partially mediated the relationship between intolerance of uncertainty and HA and PIU partially mediated the relationship between intolerance of uncertainty and psychological distress in both samples. The link between cyberchondria and psychological distress was significant in Sample 2 but non-significant in Sample 1. The model accounted for a substantial variance of HA and psychological distress in both samples.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that problematic online behaviors might exacerbate the negative consequences of intolerance of uncertainty in terms of higher levels of HA and psychological distress both in pandemic and non-pandemic contexts.

Media Exposure to COVID-19 Predicted Acute Stress: A Moderated Mediation Model of Intolerance of Uncertainty and Perceived Social Support

Background: Previous studies have found that disaster-related media exposure could predict acute stress responses. However, few studies have investigated the relationship between media exposure to COVID-19 and acute stress, and less is known about the mechanisms that translate media exposure to COVID-19 into acute stress. The current study explored the impact of media exposure to COVID-19 on acute stress, and examined the mediating role of intolerance of uncertainty (IU) and the moderating role of perceived social support (PSS). Methods: A total of 1,483 Chinese participants (M age = 27.93 years, SD = 8.45) completed anonymous online questionnaires regarding media exposure to COVID-19, IU, PSS, and acute stress during the COVID-19 outbreak in China. Results: Media exposure to COVID-19 was positively related to acute stress, and IU partially mediated this relationship. The direct effect of media exposure to COVID-19 on acute stress, and the relationship between IU and acute stress, were both moderated by PSS. The impacts of both media exposure to COVID-19 and IU on acute stress were stronger for individuals with low PSS. Limitations: This study collected data in a shorter timeframe, and no assessments occurred during the follow-up, which may prevent us from detecting the changes of the relationships between variables over time. Meanwhile, the self-report method limited the validity of the data due to subjective reporting bias. Conclusions: These findings contribute to a better understanding of how and when pandemic-related media exposure affects acute stress, and provide new perspectives for the prevention to reduce psychological problems following traumatic events.

An emotional and cognitive model of problematic Internet use among college students: The full mediating role of cognitive factors

Numerous researches have shown that the problematic Internet use (PIU) is significantly associated with a variety of psychological problems among young people. However, limited research has focused on the psychological mechanism underlying PIU. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between several emotional and cognitive factors in predicting PIU in a sole model. In this model, difficulties in emotion regulation was the independent variable, three cognitive variables (i.e. experiential avoidance, desire thinking, and intolerance of uncertainty) were the mediators, and PIU was the dependent variable. Participants were 300 college students from four universities in Tehran (60% females; Mean age = 20.27). Results of the Structural Equation Modeling analysis revealed a full mediation role of experiential avoidance and desire thinking in the relationship between difficulties in emotion regulation and PIU (R² = 57%). Based on these findings a special attention to cognitive factors is suggested in the treatment of PIU.

The Impact of Intolerance of Uncertainty and Anxiety Sensitivity on Mental Health Among Public Safety Personnel: When the Uncertain is Unavoidable

BACKGROUND

Public safety personnel (PSP; e.g., correctional workers and officers, firefighters, paramedics, police officers, public safety communications officials) are regularly exposed to potentially traumatic events and considerable uncertainty as part of their employment. Canadian PSP screen positively for mental disorders at much higher rates than the general population. Intolerance of uncertainty (IU) and anxiety sensitivity (AS) are empirically-supported vulnerability factors associated with the development and maintenance of mental disorders.

METHODS

The present study was designed to assess IU and AS across PSP-a population regularly encountering uncertainty-with and without mental disorders (n = 4304; 33.3% women), and across normative clinical, community, and undergraduate samples. Further, the study examined the relationship between IU and AS and mental disorders among PSP.

RESULTS

There were significant differences across groups on IU and AS scores (ps < .001). All PSP, with and without a positive screen for a mental disorder, reported lower IU and AS than clinical samples; however, PSP without mental disorders reported lower IU and AS than all other groups (ps < .001).

CONCLUSION

Increased resilience or the development of coping skills to manage regular exposures to uncertain threat may help explain why PSP reported low levels of IU and AS despite higher prevalence of mental disorders. Implications for PSP training and treatment are discussed.