Autoimmune thyroid diseases in children

Body composition assessment measured via bioelectrical impedance analysis in euthyroid children with newly diagnosed Hashimoto's thyroiditis

OBJECTIVES

The effects of thyroid hormones on body composition are well-known. We aimed to examine the body composition of children with and without Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) by bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) while they were still euthyroid.

METHODS

Between the ages of 5 and 18, 53 girls and 12 boys in each group, 65 children with HT, and 65 healthy children were included in this study. The Tanita MC-780 MA model was used to evaluate body composition parameters. These are fat mass (FM), fat-free mass (FFM), muscle mass (MM), bone mass (BM), total body water (TBW), phase angle, the ratio of muscle mass to fat mass (MFR), basal metabolic rate (BMR), and sarcopenic index (SI). Weight, height, body mass index standard deviation scores (SDSs), and pubertal status were examined. Additionally, TSH, Free-T4, Free-T3, Anti-TPO, Anti-Tg, serum lipid levels, and thyroid volumes were compared.

RESULTS

We observed that TBW (27.5 ± 7.5 kg vs. 24.8 ± 6.6 kg; p=0.029) and BMR (1,403 ± 253 kcal vs. 1,324 ± 200 kcal; p=0.049) were higher in the HT group. These differences are due to differences in age and muscle mass in the male group. The FM, FFM, MM, BM, MFR, SI, and phase angle scores did not differ between females with and without HT in euthyroid children by the BIA method.

CONCLUSIONS

There is no significant change in body composition in euthyroid females with HT at admission.

Thyroid cytology in pediatric patients: a single-center study from 2015 to 2023-is there a necessity for distinct treatment approaches for patients with and without autoimmune thyroiditis?

The management of thyroid nodules is guided by the cytological classification provided by The Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid Cytology. Notably, the biology of thyroid tumors in pediatric patients differs from that in adults, and there is limited research focused on pediatric cases. This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of the Bethesda system in pediatric patients treated at the largest tertiary pediatric thyroid center in Poland between 2015 and 2023. A retrospective analysis was conducted on 566 patients with thyroid nodules, of whom 555 underwent fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB). A total of 217 patients underwent thyroid surgery. Of these, 206 had previously undergone FNAB with cytological evaluation at our center, while 11 patients underwent thyroid surgery due to a RET mutation or the need for an extended procedure. The initial FNAB results showed distribution across Bethesda categories as follows: 7.6% for category I, 54.6% for category II, 20.9% for category III, 4.1% for category IV, 7.6% for category V, and 5.6% for category VI. Among patients who underwent surgery, the distribution of Bethesda categories I through VI was 2.9%, 25.2%, 29.1%, 8.3%, 19.4%, and 15%, respectively. The risk of malignancy (ROM) from the initial FNAB was estimated at 33.3%, 11.5%, 22.2%, 4.8%, 84.4%, and 96.8% for Bethesda categories I through VI, respectively. In patients with autoimmune thyroiditis (AIT), the ROM was higher than in non-AIT patients for Bethesda categories I through IV, while it was lower in category VI. The sensitivity for detecting non-benign neoplasms across Bethesda categories III through VI was approximately 86% in both AIT and non-AIT patients. However, for papillary thyroid carcinoma, sensitivity in Bethesda categories V and VI was 86% in non-AIT patients but decreased to 61.5% in AIT patients. These findings emphasize the importance of considering surgical intervention in pediatric patients with Bethesda III-VI cytology, particularly in those with AIT.

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis patients with positive family history of autoimmune thyroid disease might benefit from serological screening: analysis of the international Pharmachild registry

BACKGROUND

Little is known about the association between juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) and autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD) and therefore there are no indications for AITD screening in this population, which is possible using standard blood tests. The objective of this study is to determine the prevalence and predictors of symptomatic AITD in JIA patients from the international Pharmachild registry.

METHODS

Occurrence of AITD was determined from adverse event forms and comorbidity reports. Associated factors and independent predictors for AITD were determined using univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses.

RESULTS

The prevalence of AITD after a median observation period of 5.5 years was 1.1% (96/8965 patients). Patients who developed AITD were more often female (83.3% vs. 68.0%), RF positive (10.0% vs. 4.3%) and ANA positive (55.7% vs. 41.5%) than patients who did not. AITD patients were furthermore older at JIA onset (median 7.8 years vs. 5.3 years) and had more often polyarthritis (40.6% vs. 30.4%) and a family history of AITD (27.5% vs. 4.8%) compared to non-AITD patients. A family history of AITD (OR = 6.8, 95% CI: 4.1 - 11.1), female sex (OR = 2.2, 95% CI: 1.3 - 4.3), ANA positivity (OR = 2.0, 95% CI: 1.3 - 3.2) and older age at JIA onset (OR = 1.1, 95% CI: 1.1 - 1.2) were independent predictors of AITD on multivariable analysis. Based on our data, 16 female ANA positive JIA patients with a family history of AITD would have to be screened during ±5.5 years using standard blood tests to detect one case of AITD.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to report independent predictor variables for symptomatic AITD in JIA. Female ANA positive JIA patients with positive family history are at increased risk of developing AITD and thus might benefit from yearly serological screening.

What we know about the relationship between autoimmune thyroid diseases and gut microbiota: a perspective on the role of probiotics on pediatric endocrinology

INTRODUCTION

Autoimmune diseases account for a cumulative overall prevalence of about 3-5% worldwide. Among them, autoimmune thyroid diseases (ATDs) are the most common and comprise two main entities: Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) and Graves-Basedow disease (GD). The pathogenesis of ATDs remains not fully elucidated, however the role of microbioma has been proposed. Gut microbiota exert an important influence on the intestinal barrier, nutrient metabolism and immune system development and functions.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

In this review, we describe on the main features of ATDs in pediatrics, focusing on the reciprocal influence between gut microbiota, thyroid hormone metabolism and thyroid autoimmunity and consider the role of probiotics and other microbiota-targeted therapies in thyroid diseases with a perspective on pediatric endocrinology.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

Microbiome affects both endogenous and exogenous thyroid hormone metabolism and influences the absorption of minerals important to the thyroid function, which are iodine, selenium, zinc and iron. The alteration of the gut microbiota, with the consequent modifications in the barrier function and the increased gut permeability, seems involved in the development of autoimmune and chronic inflammatory diseases, including ATDs. The supplementation with probiotics showed beneficial effects on the thyroid hormone and thyroid function because this strategy could restore the intestinal eubiosis and the good strain microorganism proliferation.

CONCLUSIONS

Even though the evidence about the interaction between microbiota and ATDs in pediatric patients is limited, the promising results obtained in the adult population, and in other autoimmune disorders affecting children, highlight the need of for further research in the pediatric field.

Pathological damage of thyroidopathy and the prevalence of thyroid diseases in children of the Perm region

Relevance. Thyroid diseases in children and adolescents rank first in the structure of endocrine pathology. An issue related to comparability of data on prevalence obtained with different procedures is vital given the necessity to intensify activities aimed at optimizing prevention of thyroid pathology.

The aim. Comparative analysis of pathological lesions of thyropathies and the prevalence of thyroid gland diseases in children and adolescents living in the territory of the Perm region.

Materials and methods. Prevalence of thyroid diseases was analyzed based on data taken from Statistic Form No. 12. Pathological damage caused by thyroid diseases was calculated based on results produced by medical examinations that included laboratory tests, ultrasound scanning of the thyroid gland, and a check-up by an endocrinologist. Calculation results were then compared with data taken from statistic reports. Influence exerted by sex and age on the growth in thyrotrophic hormone contents and thyroid gland volume was assessed by analyzing values in one-factor logistic regression models.

Results. Prevalence of thyroid diseases, endemic goiter and subclinical hypothyroidism tends to decrease among children living in Perm region (р = 0.003–0.015) but prevalence of thyroiditis remains stable (р = 0.794). Having assessed prevalence among teenagers, we did not reveal any dynamics in prevalence of thyroid diseases and thyroiditis (р = 0.129–0.248); prevalence of endemic goiter went down in this age group (р = 0.008) whereas prevalence of subclinical hypothyroidism grew due to iodine deficiency (р = 0.012). The difference between pathological damage and prevalence of thyroid diseases reached 4.8–38.6 times. Having analyzed created logistic models, we were not able to identify sex or age as predictors of thyroid pathology occurrence.

Conclusion. Prevalence of thyroid pathology was established to be by 4.8–38.6 times lower than pathological damage. Iodine deficiency on a given territory calls for developing regional medical and prevention programs aimed at diagnosing and preventing thyroid diseases caused by it.

Clinical, biochemical, and radiological follow-up results of children and adolescents with Hashimoto's thyroiditis: a single-center experience

OBJECTIVES

Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) is the most common cause of goiter and acquired hypothyroidism in children and adolescents, especially in areas without endemic iodine deficiency. We aimed to evaluate the follow-up results of children and adolescents diagnosed with HT, including clinical, biochemical, and radiological findings and treatment approaches.

METHODS

HT patients, who were diagnosed between 2012 and 2018 years in a single-center, were assessed retrospectively.

RESULTS

Two hundred and twenty-four cases were included in the study, 75.9% of whom were girls (female/male ratio: 3.1) and 66.5% were pubertal. The median age of the cases at first admission was 12.5 (9.2-15) years. The median follow-up period of 196 patients, who continued their follow-up regularly, was 2.1 (0.7-4.8) years. When autoantibody levels were analyzed according to gender, mean anti-Tg levels were higher in girls (p=0.028), whereas anti-TPO levels were similar (p=0.372). A nodule was detected in the ultrasonographic follow-up of 29 (13%) patients. Papillary thyroid carcinoma was observed in 10.3% (n=3) of those with nodules. When the last ultrasonography findings of 188 patients with available radiological follow-up data were compared with their initial evaluation, the rate of heterogeneous parenchymal echogenicity increased significantly (p=0.008). The need for l-thyroxine dosage augmented over time.

CONCLUSIONS

Although HT is more common in adolescent girls, it can be encountered in both genders and at all ages in childhood. The incidence of malignancy was not higher in patients with nodules associated with HT than the reported incidences of malignancy in nodules not associated with HT.

Outcome of Non-hematological Autoimmunity After Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation in Children with Primary Immunodeficiency

PURPOSE

Knowledge of post-hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) non-hematological autoimmune disease (AD) is far from satisfactory.

METHOD

This multicenter retrospective study focuses on incidence, risk factors, and outcomes of post-HCT AD in 596 children with primary immunodeficiency (PID) who were transplanted from 2009 to 2018.

RESULTS

The indications of HCT were severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID, n = 158, 27%) and non-SCID PID (n = 438, 73%). The median age at HCT was 2.3 years (range, 0.04 to 18.3 years). The 5-year overall survival for the entire cohort was 79% (95% cumulative incidence (CIN), 74-83%). The median follow-up of surviving patients was 4.3 years (0.08 to 14.7 years). The CIN of post-HCT AD was 3% (2-5%) at 1 year post-HCT, 7% (5-11%) at 5 years post-HCT, and 11% (7-17%) at 8 years post-HCT. The median onset of post-HCT AD was 2.2 years (0.12 to 9.6 years). Autoimmune thyroid disorder (n = 19, 62%) was the most common post-HCT AD, followed by neuromuscular disorders (n = 7, 22%) and rheumatological manifestations (n = 5, 16%). All patients but one required treatment for post-HCT AD. After multivariate analysis, age at transplant (p = 0.01) and T cell-depleted graft (p < 0.001) were significant predictors of post-HCT AD. None of the T cell-depleted graft recipients developed post-HCT AD. Patients with a lower CD3+ count at 6 months post-HCT had a significant higher incidence of post-HCT AD compared to disease controls. Graft-versus-host disease, viral infection, and donor chimerism had no association with post-HCT AD.

CONCLUSION

Post-HCT AD occurred in 11% at 8 years post-HCT and its occurrence was associated with older age at HCT and unmanipulated graft.

Evaluation of the thyroid disorders in children with familial Mediterranean fever

Although it is well-known that autoimmune thyroid diseases are more common in most of the autoimmune connective tissue diseases, the relationship between autoinflammatory diseases and autoimmune thyroid diseases has not well-evaluated yet and still remains unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the frequency of autoimmune diseases of the thyroid gland and to evaluate thyroid function tests in children with familial Mediterranean fever. Thyroxine, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and thyroid autoimmune markers such as thyroid peroxidase and thyroglobulin antibodies, and thyroid ultrasound findings of 133 patients with familial Mediterranean fever and 70 healthy controls were evaluated. Serum levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone, free thyroxine, and thyroid autoimmunity markers were similar in patients with familial Mediterranean fever compared with healthy controls. There was no relationship between the duration of the disease and thyroid-stimulating hormone, free thyroxine, anti-thyroid peroxidase, and anti-thyroglobulin levels. This study revealed that incidence of thyroid dysfunction and autoimmunity is not increased in patients with familial Mediterranean fever. In conclusion, routine screening of serum thyroid function tests and thyroid antibody levels is not required in patients with familial Mediterranean fever in the absence of clinical symptoms or family history. Key Points • It is well-known that autoimmune thyroid diseases are common in autoimmune diseases. • The relationship between autoimmune thyroid diseases and autoinflammatory diseases like familial Mediterranean fever is still unclear. • In this study, we report the similar frequency of the autoinflammatory thyroid diseases in patients with familial Mediterranean fever and healthy controls. • A routine screening of serum thyroid function tests and thyroid antibody levels may not be required in patients with familial Mediterranean fever in the absence of clinical symptoms or family history.

<p>Associations Between Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Levels and Thyroid Function Parameters in Previously Healthy Children Aged 6 to 24 Months</p>

Purpose

Vitamin D deficiency has been linked to overt thyroid diseases. Data on the effects of vitamin D status on thyroid function in children are less examined. The goal of the present study was to explore the association between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] levels and thyroid function parameters in early childhood.

Patients and Methods

This was a cross-sectional study involving record-linkage of children’s data of routine health check-ups for promoting early childhood development at Guangdong Women and Children’s Hospital; 2869 children aged 6–24 months were included from January 2015 to May 2017. Serum 25(OH)D, thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), free triiodothyronine (FT3), and free thyroxine (FT4) levels were measured using the electrochemiluminescence immunoassay.

Results

The study population had a mean serum 25(OH)D level of 79.7 ± 28.1 nmol/L and 12.5% vitamin D deficiency and 36.0% insufficiency rates. The rates of thyroid dysfunctions detected were 2.9% hypothyroidism, 4.2% subclinical hypothyroidism, 0.9% hyperthyroidism, and 1.7% subclinical hyperthyroidism among the previously healthy children aged 6 to 24 months. Serum 25(OH)D levels had no significant correlation with TSH (r = 0.022, P = 0.236), FT3 (r = 0.014, P = 0.440) and FT4 (r = −0.059, P = 0.056) levels. No significant difference in the levels of thyroid hormones was found between the different quartiles of 25(OH)D level. Vitamin D deficiency [25(OH)D < 50 nmol/L] was associated with hypothyroidism (adjusted odds ratio = 2.16, 95% confidence interval: 1.18–3.94) but not with subclinical hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, and subclinical hyperthyroidism.

Conclusion

Vitamin D deficiency is slightly associated with hypothyroidism. No associations were found between serum 25(OH)D levels and thyroid-related measures (TSH, FT3, and FT4) in previously healthy children aged 6–24 months.

Gender Differences at the Onset of Autoimmune Thyroid Diseases in Children and Adolescents

Background: The incidence of autoimmune thyroid diseases (ATD) may vary with the beginning of reproductive function, although few reports differentiate the incidence before and during the onset of puberty, examining gender bias. We analyzed onset of ATD in a pediatric population to assess gender differences in onset age, disease subtype, pubertal status, autoimmune co-morbidity, family history and treatment, focusing on the interaction between gender and pubertal stage. Patients and methods: We retrospectively recorded 382 children and adolescents with ATD. In each patient physical examination was considered. The presence of other associated autoimmune diseases (AAD) and familial predisposition was also recorded. Results: Predominant prevalence was noted in females compared to males (p < 0.001), both in Hashimoto's diseases (HD or HT) and Graves' disease (GD) (p < 0.001). Mean age at diagnosis showed no significant difference between sexes (p > 0.05). A higher prevalence in pubertal subjects was noted compared to prepubertal (p < 0.001, particularly HT in early and GD in late pubertal stage), without sexes difference intra-(prepubertal vs. pubertal) and inter-puberty groups (prepubertal vs. early pubertal vs. late pubertal). Both in HT and in GD, the prevalence of autoimmune associated diseases (AAD) was higher in males compared to females (p = 0.04), with similar distribution according to the pubertal maturation. The familial predisposition was similarly distributed in both genders (p > 0.05) and into pubertal stages (p > 0.05). Conclusions: Females are more prone to develop ATD during puberty, earlier in HT than in GD. The effect of puberty is not different between genders, suggesting the role of additional factors other than hormones. The screening for detection of ATD is recommended in all patients with positive family history and other autoimmune diseases, mostly in males. Considerations of gender in pediatrics could be important to define pathogenic mechanisms of ATD and to help in early diagnosis and clinical management.

Selenium and iodine in diabetes mellitus with a focus on the interplay and speciation of the elements

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disease caused by insulin deficiency (type I) or dysfunction (type II). Diabetes is a threatening public health concern. It is considered as one of the priority non-communicable diseases, due to its high and increasing incidence, the associated healthcare costs, and threatening medical complications. Two trace elements selenium (Se) and iodine (I) were intensively discussed in the context of diabetic pathology and, possibly, etiology. It seems there is a multilayer involvement of these essential nutrients in glucose tolerance, energy metabolism, insulin signaling and resistance, which are mainly related to the antioxidant selenoenzymes and the thyroid hormones. Other factors might be related to (auto)immunity, protection against endoplasmic reticulum stress, and leptin signaling. The aim of the current review is to evaluate the current understanding of the role of selenium and iodine in diabetes with a focus on the biochemical interplay between the elements, their possible role as biomarkers, and their chemical speciation. Possible impacts from novel analytical techniques related to trace element speciation and isotopic analysis are outlined.