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Hidalgo-Alvarez V, Madl CM. Leveraging Biomaterial Platforms to Study Aging-Related Neural and Muscular Degeneration. Biomolecules 2024; 14:69. [PMID: 38254669 PMCID: PMC10813704 DOI: 10.3390/biom14010069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Revised: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Aging is a complex multifactorial process that results in tissue function impairment across the whole organism. One of the common consequences of this process is the loss of muscle mass and the associated decline in muscle function, known as sarcopenia. Aging also presents with an increased risk of developing other pathological conditions such as neurodegeneration. Muscular and neuronal degeneration cause mobility issues and cognitive impairment, hence having a major impact on the quality of life of the older population. The development of novel therapies that can ameliorate the effects of aging is currently hindered by our limited knowledge of the underlying mechanisms and the use of models that fail to recapitulate the structure and composition of the cell microenvironment. The emergence of bioengineering techniques based on the use of biomimetic materials and biofabrication methods has opened the possibility of generating 3D models of muscular and nervous tissues that better mimic the native extracellular matrix. These platforms are particularly advantageous for drug testing and mechanistic studies. In this review, we discuss the developments made in the creation of 3D models of aging-related neuronal and muscular degeneration and we provide a perspective on the future directions for the field.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christopher M. Madl
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA;
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2
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Ostrovidov S, Ramalingam M, Bae H, Orive G, Fujie T, Shi X, Kaji H. Latest developments in engineered skeletal muscle tissues for drug discovery and development. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2023; 18:47-63. [PMID: 36535280 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2023.2160438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION With the advances in skeletal muscle tissue engineering, new platforms have arisen with important applications in biology studies, disease modeling, and drug testing. Current developments highlight the quest for engineering skeletal muscle tissues with higher complexity . These new human skeletal muscle tissue models will be powerful tools for drug discovery and development and disease modeling. AREAS COVERED The authors review the latest advances in in vitro models of engineered skeletal muscle tissues used for testing drugs with a focus on the use of four main cell culture techniques: Cell cultures in well plates, in microfluidics, in organoids, and in bioprinted constructs. Additional information is provided on the satellite cell niche. EXPERT OPINION In recent years, more sophisticated in vitro models of skeletal muscle tissues have been fabricated. Important developments have been made in stem cell research and in the engineering of human skeletal muscle tissue. Some platforms have already started to be used for drug testing, notably those based on the parameters of hypertrophy/atrophy and the contractibility of myotubes. More developments are expected through the use of multicellular types and multi-materials as matrices . The validation and use of these models in drug testing should now increase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serge Ostrovidov
- Department of Biomechanics, Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Murugan Ramalingam
- Institute of Tissue Regeneration Engineering, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea.,Department of Nanobiomedical Science, BK21 PLUS NBM Global Research Center for Regenerative Medicine Research Center, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea.,School of Basic Medical Science, Chengdu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.,Mechanobiology Dental Medicine Research Center, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea.,Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Atilim University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Hojae Bae
- KU Convergence Science and Technology Institute, Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Hwayang-dong, Kwangjin-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Gorka Orive
- NanoBioCel Group, Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain.,Bioaraba, NanoBioCel Research Group, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain.,Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Biomedical Research Networking Centre in Bioengineering, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
| | - Toshinori Fujie
- Department of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Xuetao Shi
- National Engineering Research Center for Tissue Restoration and Reconstruction, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Hirokazu Kaji
- Department of Biomechanics, Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
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Strickland JB, Davis-Anderson K, Micheva-Viteva S, Twary S, Iyer R, Harris JF, Solomon EA. Optimization of Application-Driven Development of In Vitro Neuromuscular Junction Models. TISSUE ENGINEERING. PART B, REVIEWS 2022; 28:1180-1191. [PMID: 35018825 PMCID: PMC9805869 DOI: 10.1089/ten.teb.2021.0204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) are specialized synapses responsible for signal transduction between motor neurons (MNs) and skeletal muscle tissue. Malfunction at this site can result from developmental disorders, toxic environmental exposures, and neurodegenerative diseases leading to severe neurological dysfunction. Exploring these conditions in human or animal subjects is restricted by ethical concerns and confounding environmental factors. Therefore, in vitro NMJ models provide exciting opportunities for advancements in tissue engineering. In the last two decades, multiple NMJ prototypes and platforms have been reported, and each model system design is strongly tied to a specific application: exploring developmental physiology, disease modeling, or high-throughput screening. Directing the differentiation of stem cells into mature MNs and/or skeletal muscle for NMJ modeling has provided critical cues to recapitulate early-stage development. Patient-derived inducible pluripotent stem cells provide a personalized approach to investigating NMJ disease, especially when disease etiology cannot be resolved down to a specific gene mutation. Having reproducible NMJ culture replicates is useful for high-throughput screening to evaluate drug toxicity and determine the impact of environmental threat exposures. Cutting-edge bioengineering techniques have propelled this field forward with innovative microfabrication and design approaches allowing both two-dimensional and three-dimensional NMJ culture models. Many of these NMJ systems require further validation for broader application by regulatory agencies, pharmaceutical companies, and the general research community. In this summary, we present a comprehensive review on the current state-of-art research in NMJ models and discuss their ability to provide valuable insight into cell and tissue interactions. Impact statement In vitro neuromuscular junction (NMJ) models reveal the specialized mechanisms of communication between neurons and muscle tissue. This site can be disrupted by developmental disorders, toxic environmental exposures, or neurodegenerative diseases, which often lead to fatal outcomes and is therefore of critical importance to the medical community. Many bioengineering approaches for in vitro NMJ modeling have been designed to mimic development and disease; other approaches include in vitro NMJ models for high-throughput toxicology screening, providing a platform to limit or replace animal testing. This review describes various NMJ applications and the bioengineering advancements allowing for human NMJ characteristics to be more accurately recapitulated. While the extensive range of NMJ device structures has hindered standardization attempts, there is still a need to harmonize these devices for broader application and to continue advancing the field of NMJ modeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie B. Strickland
- Bioscience Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA
| | - Katie Davis-Anderson
- Bioscience Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA
| | | | - Scott Twary
- Bioscience Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA
| | - Rashi Iyer
- Information System and Modeling, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA
| | | | - Emilia A. Solomon
- Bioscience Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA.,Address correspondence to: Emilia A. Solomon, PhD, Bioscience Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, PO Box 1663 MS M888, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
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Hörner SJ, Couturier N, Bruch R, Koch P, Hafner M, Rudolf R. hiPSC-Derived Schwann Cells Influence Myogenic Differentiation in Neuromuscular Cocultures. Cells 2021; 10:cells10123292. [PMID: 34943800 PMCID: PMC8699767 DOI: 10.3390/cells10123292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Revised: 11/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Motoneurons, skeletal muscle fibers, and Schwann cells form synapses, termed neuromuscular junctions (NMJs). These control voluntary body movement and are affected in numerous neuromuscular diseases. Therefore, a variety of NMJ in vitro models have been explored to enable mechanistic and pharmacological studies. So far, selective integration of Schwann cells in these models has been hampered, due to technical limitations. Here we present robust protocols for derivation of Schwann cells from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC) and their coculture with hiPSC-derived motoneurons and C2C12 muscle cells. Upon differentiation with tuned BMP signaling, Schwann cells expressed marker proteins, S100b, Gap43, vimentin, and myelin protein zero. Furthermore, they displayed typical spindle-shaped morphologies with long processes, which often aligned with motoneuron axons. Inclusion of Schwann cells in coculture experiments with hiPSC-derived motoneurons and C2C12 myoblasts enhanced myotube growth and affected size and number of acetylcholine receptor plaques on myotubes. Altogether, these data argue for the availability of a consistent differentiation protocol for Schwann cells and their amenability for functional integration into neuromuscular in vitro models, fostering future studies of neuromuscular mechanisms and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Janice Hörner
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, 68163 Mannheim, Germany; (S.J.H.); (N.C.); (R.B.); (M.H.)
- Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Nathalie Couturier
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, 68163 Mannheim, Germany; (S.J.H.); (N.C.); (R.B.); (M.H.)
| | - Roman Bruch
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, 68163 Mannheim, Germany; (S.J.H.); (N.C.); (R.B.); (M.H.)
| | - Philipp Koch
- Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim of Heidelberg University, 68159 Mannheim, Germany;
- Hector Institute for Translational Brain Research (HITBR gGmbH), 68159 Mannheim, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Mathias Hafner
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, 68163 Mannheim, Germany; (S.J.H.); (N.C.); (R.B.); (M.H.)
- Institute of Medical Technology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences and Heidelberg University, 68163 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Rüdiger Rudolf
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, 68163 Mannheim, Germany; (S.J.H.); (N.C.); (R.B.); (M.H.)
- Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Institute of Medical Technology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences and Heidelberg University, 68163 Mannheim, Germany
- Correspondence:
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Yamamoto K, Yamaoka N, Imaizumi Y, Nagashima T, Furutani T, Ito T, Okada Y, Honda H, Shimizu K. Development of a human neuromuscular tissue-on-a-chip model on a 24-well-plate-format compartmentalized microfluidic device. LAB ON A CHIP 2021; 21:1897-1907. [PMID: 34008665 DOI: 10.1039/d1lc00048a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Engineered three-dimensional models of neuromuscular tissues are promising for use in mimicking their disorder states in vitro. Although several models have been developed, it is still challenging to mimic the physically separated structures of motor neurons (MNs) and skeletal muscle (SkM) fibers in the motor units in vivo. In this study, we aimed to develop microdevices for precisely compartmentalized coculturing of MNs and engineered SkM tissues. The developed microdevices, which fit a well of 24 well plates, had a chamber for MNs and chamber for SkM tissues. The two chambers were connected by microtunnels for axons, permissive to axons but not to cell bodies. Human iPSC (hiPSC)-derived MN spheroids in one chamber elongated their axons into microtunnels, which reached the tissue-engineered human SkM in the SkM chamber, and formed functional neuromuscular junctions with the muscle fibers. The cocultured SkM tissues with MNs on the device contracted spontaneously in response to spontaneous firing of MNs. The addition of a neurotransmitter, glutamate, into the MN chamber induced contraction of the cocultured SkM tissues. Selective addition of tetrodotoxin or vecuronium bromide into either chamber induced SkM tissue relaxation, which could be explained by the inhibitory mechanisms. We also demonstrated the application of chemical or mechanical stimuli to the middle of the axons of cocultured tissues on the device. Thus, compartmentalized neuromuscular tissue models fabricated on the device could be used for phenotypic screening to evaluate the cellular type specific efficacy of drug candidates and would be a useful tool in fundamental research and drug development for neuromuscular disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuki Yamamoto
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan.
| | - Nao Yamaoka
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan.
| | - Yu Imaizumi
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan.
| | - Takunori Nagashima
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan.
| | - Taiki Furutani
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan.
| | - Takuji Ito
- Department of Neurology, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, Nagakute, Aichi, Japan
| | - Yohei Okada
- Department of Neurology, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, Nagakute, Aichi, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Honda
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan.
| | - Kazunori Shimizu
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan.
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Nedelec S, Martinez-Arias A. In vitro models of spinal motor circuit's development in mammals: achievements and challenges. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2021; 66:240-249. [PMID: 33677159 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2020.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The connectivity patterns of neurons sustaining the functionality of spinal locomotor circuits rely on the specification of hundreds of motor neuron and interneuron subtypes precisely arrayed within the embryonic spinal cord. Knowledge acquired by developmental biologists on the molecular mechanisms underpinning this process in vivo has supported the development of 2D and 3D differentiation strategies to generate spinal neuronal diversity from mouse and human pluripotent stem cells (PSCs). Here, we review recent breakthroughs in this field and the perspectives opened up by models of in vitro embryogenesis to approach the mechanisms underlying neuronal diversification and the formation of functional mouse and human locomotor circuits. Beyond serving fundamental investigations, these new approaches should help engineering neuronal circuits differentially impacted in neuromuscular disorders, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or spinal muscular atrophies, and thus open new avenues for disease modeling and drug screenings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphane Nedelec
- Institut du Fer à Moulin, 75005, Paris, France; Inserm, UMR-S 1270, 75005 Paris, France; Sorbonne Université, Science and Engineering Faculty, 75005 Paris, France.
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Saini J, Faroni A, Reid AJ, Mamchaoui K, Mouly V, Butler-Browne G, Lightfoot AP, McPhee JS, Degens H, Al-Shanti N. A Novel Bioengineered Functional Motor Unit Platform to Study Neuromuscular Interaction. J Clin Med 2020; 9:jcm9103238. [PMID: 33050427 PMCID: PMC7599749 DOI: 10.3390/jcm9103238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2020] [Revised: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: In many neurodegenerative and muscular disorders, and loss of innervation in sarcopenia, improper reinnervation of muscle and dysfunction of the motor unit (MU) are key pathogenic features. In vivo studies of MUs are constrained due to difficulties isolating and extracting functional MUs, so there is a need for a simplified and reproducible system of engineered in vitro MUs. Objective: to develop and characterise a functional MU model in vitro, permitting the analysis of MU development and function. Methods: an immortalised human myoblast cell line was co-cultured with rat embryo spinal cord explants in a serum-free/growth fact media. MUs developed and the morphology of their components (neuromuscular junction (NMJ), myotubes and motor neurons) were characterised using immunocytochemistry, phase contrast and confocal microscopy. The function of the MU was evaluated through live observations and videography of spontaneous myotube contractions after challenge with cholinergic antagonists and glutamatergic agonists. Results: blocking acetylcholine receptors with α-bungarotoxin resulted in complete, cessation of myotube contractions, which was reversible with tubocurarine. Furthermore, myotube activity was significantly higher with the application of L-glutamic acid. All these observations indicate the formed MU are functional. Conclusion: a functional nerve-muscle co-culture model was established that has potential for drug screening and pathophysiological studies of neuromuscular interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasdeep Saini
- Musculoskeletal Science & Sports Medicine Research Centre, Department of Life Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 5GD, UK; (J.S.); (A.P.L.); (H.D.)
| | - Alessandro Faroni
- Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Blond McIndoe Laboratories, Division of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M1 7DN, UK; (A.F.); (A.J.R.)
- Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Department of Plastic Surgery & Burns, Manchester University NHS Foundation Trust, Wythenshawe Hospital, Manchester M23 9LT, UK
| | - Adam J. Reid
- Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Blond McIndoe Laboratories, Division of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M1 7DN, UK; (A.F.); (A.J.R.)
- Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Department of Plastic Surgery & Burns, Manchester University NHS Foundation Trust, Wythenshawe Hospital, Manchester M23 9LT, UK
| | - Kamel Mamchaoui
- Center for Research in Myology, Sorbonne Université-INSERM, 75013 Paris, France; (K.M.); (V.M.); (G.B.-B.)
| | - Vincent Mouly
- Center for Research in Myology, Sorbonne Université-INSERM, 75013 Paris, France; (K.M.); (V.M.); (G.B.-B.)
| | - Gillian Butler-Browne
- Center for Research in Myology, Sorbonne Université-INSERM, 75013 Paris, France; (K.M.); (V.M.); (G.B.-B.)
| | - Adam P. Lightfoot
- Musculoskeletal Science & Sports Medicine Research Centre, Department of Life Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 5GD, UK; (J.S.); (A.P.L.); (H.D.)
| | - Jamie S. McPhee
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 5GD, UK;
| | - Hans Degens
- Musculoskeletal Science & Sports Medicine Research Centre, Department of Life Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 5GD, UK; (J.S.); (A.P.L.); (H.D.)
- Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University, LT-44221 Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Nasser Al-Shanti
- Musculoskeletal Science & Sports Medicine Research Centre, Department of Life Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 5GD, UK; (J.S.); (A.P.L.); (H.D.)
- Correspondence:
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Sala-Jarque J, Mesquida-Veny F, Badiola-Mateos M, Samitier J, Hervera A, del Río JA. Neuromuscular Activity Induces Paracrine Signaling and Triggers Axonal Regrowth after Injury in Microfluidic Lab-On-Chip Devices. Cells 2020; 9:cells9020302. [PMID: 32012727 PMCID: PMC7072511 DOI: 10.3390/cells9020302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Peripheral nerve injuries, including motor neuron axonal injury, often lead to functional impairments. Current therapies are mostly limited to surgical intervention after lesion, yet these interventions have limited success in restoring functionality. Current activity-based therapies after axonal injuries are based on trial-error approaches in which the details of the underlying cellular and molecular processes are largely unknown. Here we show the effects of the modulation of both neuronal and muscular activity with optogenetic approaches to assess the regenerative capacity of cultured motor neuron (MN) after lesion in a compartmentalized microfluidic-assisted axotomy device. With increased neuronal activity, we observed an increase in the ratio of regrowing axons after injury in our peripheral-injury model. Moreover, increasing muscular activity induces the liberation of leukemia inhibitory factor and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor in a paracrine fashion that in turn triggers axonal regrowth of lesioned MN in our 3D hydrogel cultures. The relevance of our findings as well as the novel approaches used in this study could be useful not only after axotomy events but also in diseases affecting MN survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Sala-Jarque
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (J.S.-J.); (F.M.-V.); (M.B.-M.); (J.S.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), 28031 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Francina Mesquida-Veny
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (J.S.-J.); (F.M.-V.); (M.B.-M.); (J.S.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), 28031 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Maider Badiola-Mateos
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (J.S.-J.); (F.M.-V.); (M.B.-M.); (J.S.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBERBBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Electronics and Biomedical Engineering, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Josep Samitier
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (J.S.-J.); (F.M.-V.); (M.B.-M.); (J.S.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBERBBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Electronics and Biomedical Engineering, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Arnau Hervera
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (J.S.-J.); (F.M.-V.); (M.B.-M.); (J.S.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), 28031 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Correspondence: (A.H.); (J.A.d.R.)
| | - José Antonio del Río
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (J.S.-J.); (F.M.-V.); (M.B.-M.); (J.S.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), 28031 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Correspondence: (A.H.); (J.A.d.R.)
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