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Ovalle-Fresa R, Ankner S, Rothen N. Enhanced perception and memory: Insights from synesthesia and expertise. Cortex 2021; 140:14-25. [PMID: 33905967 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2021.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Memory research has identified many strategies to enhance memory. However, natural foundations of enhanced memory are vastly underexplored. Interestingly, numerous studies show that synesthesia is associated with enhanced memory performance. Although it has been hypothesized for years that wider changes in visual perception are closely linked with enhanced memory functions in synesthesia, the hypothesis has never been directly put to the test. Here, we investigated whether visual perceptual abilities in synesthesia are linked with higher memory performance by comparing synesthetes who experience colors for letters with non-synesthetic color experts and non-synesthetic individuals from the more general population. Our results showed that synesthesia and expertise share a common profile of enhanced visual perceptual ability and memory in contrast to non-synesthetic individuals from the more general population. Overall, our findings suggest that visual perception and visual memory are more closely connected than previously thought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Ovalle-Fresa
- University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland; Swiss Distance University Institute, Brig, Switzerland
| | | | - Nicolas Rothen
- University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland; Swiss Distance University Institute, Brig, Switzerland.
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2
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Rothen N, Berry CJ, Seth AK, Oligschläger S, Ward J. A single system account of enhanced recognition memory in synaesthesia. Mem Cognit 2020; 48:188-199. [PMID: 31939042 PMCID: PMC7052031 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-019-01001-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Researchers often adjudicate between models of memory according to the models' ability to explain impaired patterns of performance (e.g., in amnesia). In contrast, evidence from special groups with enhanced memory is very rarely considered. Here, we explored how people with unusual perceptual experiences (synaesthesia) perform on various measures of memory and test how computational models of memory may account for their enhanced performance. We contrasted direct and indirect measures of memory (i.e., recognition memory, repetition priming, and fluency) in grapheme-colour synaesthetes and controls using a continuous identification with recognition (CID-R) paradigm. Synaesthetes outperformed controls on recognition memory and showed a different reaction-time pattern for identification. The data were most parsimoniously accounted for by a single-system computational model of the relationship between recognition and identification. Overall, the findings speak in favour of enhanced processing as an explanation for the memory advantage in synaesthesia. In general, our results show how synaesthesia can be used as an effective tool to study how individual differences in perception affect cognitive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Rothen
- Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK.
- School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK.
- Faculty of Psychology, Swiss Distance University Institute, Brig, Switzerland.
| | | | - Anil K Seth
- Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
- School of Engineering and Informatics, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Sabine Oligschläger
- School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
- Max Planck Research Group Neuroanatomy & Connectivity, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
- Faculty of Biosciences, Pharmacy and Psychology University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jamie Ward
- Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
- School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
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Schreiter ML, Chmielewski WX, Ward J, Beste C. How non-veridical perception drives actions in healthy humans: evidence from synaesthesia. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 374:20180574. [PMID: 31630650 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2018.0574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We continually perform actions that are driven by our perception and it is a commonly held view that only objectively perceived changes within the 'real' world affect behaviour. Exceptions are generally only made for mental health disorders associated with delusions and hallucinations where behaviour may be triggered by the experience of objectively non-existent percepts. Here, we demonstrate, using synaesthesia as a model condition (in N = 19 grapheme-colour synaesthetes), how objectively non-existent (i.e. non-veridical) but still non-pathological perceptions affect actions in healthy humans. Using electroencephalography, we determine whether early-stage perceptual processes (reflected by P1 and N1 event-related potential (ERP) components), or late-stage-integration processes (reflected by N2 component), underlie the effects of non-veridical perceptions on action control. ERP analysis suggests that even though the examined peculiarities and experimental variations are perceptual in nature, it is not early-stage perceptual processes, but rather higher-order executive control processes linking perceptions to the appropriate motor response underlying this effect. Source localization analysis implicates activation within medial frontal cortices in the effect of how irrelevant non-veridical perceptions modulate behaviour. Our results challenge common conceptions about the determinants of human behaviour but can be explained by well-established theoretical frameworks detailing the link between perception and action. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Bridging senses: novel insights from synaesthesia'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Luise Schreiter
- Cognitive Neurophysiology, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Technische Universitat Dresden, 01259 Dresden, Germany
| | - Witold X Chmielewski
- Cognitive Neurophysiology, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Technische Universitat Dresden, 01259 Dresden, Germany
| | - Jamie Ward
- School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK.,Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Christian Beste
- Cognitive Neurophysiology, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Technische Universitat Dresden, 01259 Dresden, Germany
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Forest TA, Lichtenfeld A, Alvarez B, Finn AS. Superior learning in synesthetes: Consistent grapheme-color associations facilitate statistical learning. Cognition 2019; 186:72-81. [PMID: 30763803 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2019.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2017] [Revised: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 02/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In synesthesia activation in one sensory domain, such as smell or sound, triggers an involuntary and unusual secondary sensory or cognitive experience. In the present study, we ask whether the added sensory experience of synesthesia can aid statistical learning-the ability to track environmental regularities in order to segment continuous information. To investigate this, we measured statistical learning outcomes, using an aurally presented artificial language, in two groups of synesthetes alongside controls and simulated the multimodal experience of synesthesia in non-synesthetes. One group of synesthetes exclusively had grapheme-color (GC) synesthesia, in which the experience of color is automatically triggered by exposure to written or spoken graphemes. The other group had both grapheme-color and sound-color (SC+) synesthesia, in which the experience of color is also triggered by the waveform properties of a voice, such as pitch, timbre, and/or musical chords. Unlike GC-only synesthetes, the experience of color in the SC+ group is not perfectly consistent with the statistics that signal word boundaries. We showed that GC-only synesthetes outperformed both non-synesthetes and SC+ synesthetes, likely because the visual concurrents for GC-only synesthetes are highly consistent with the artificial language. We further observed that our simulations of GC synesthesia, but not SC+ synesthesia produced superior statistical learning, showing that synesthesia likely boosts learning outcomes by providing a consistent secondary cue. Findings are discussed with regard to how multimodal experience can improve learning, with the present data indicating that this boost is more likely to occur through explicit, as opposed to implicit, learning systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tess Allegra Forest
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, 100 St. George Street, 4th Floor, Sidney Smith Hall, Toronto, ON M5S 3G3, Canada
| | - Alessandra Lichtenfeld
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, Room 3210 Tolman Hall #1650, Berkeley, CA 94720-1650, USA
| | - Bryan Alvarez
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, Room 3210 Tolman Hall #1650, Berkeley, CA 94720-1650, USA
| | - Amy S Finn
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, 100 St. George Street, 4th Floor, Sidney Smith Hall, Toronto, ON M5S 3G3, Canada.
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Bankieris KR, Qian T, Aslin RN. Synesthetes perseverate in implicit learning: Evidence from a non-stationary statistical learning task. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2018; 72:1771-1779. [PMID: 30537900 DOI: 10.1177/1747021818816285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Synesthetes automatically and consistently experience additional sensory or cognitive perceptions in response to particular environmental stimuli. Recent evidence suggests that the propensity to develop synesthesia is genetic while the particular associations experienced by a given synesthete are influenced by learning. Despite the potential role of implicit learning in the formation of synesthetic associations, there has been minimal investigation of synesthetes' implicit learning abilities. In this study, we examine linguistic-colour synesthetes' ability to implicitly learn from and adjust to non-stationary statistics in a domain unrelated to their particular form of synesthesia. Engaging participants in a computer game Whack-the-mole, we utilise the online measure of reaction time to assess the time course of learning. Participants are exposed to "worlds" of probabilities that, unbeknownst to them, undergo unannounced changes, creating unpredictable statistical shifts devoid of accompanying cues. The same small set of probability worlds are repeated throughout the experiment to investigate participants' ability to retain and learn from this repetitive probabilistic information. The reaction time data provide evidence that synesthetes require more information than nonsynesthetes to benefit from the non-stationary probability distributions. These findings demonstrate that linguistic-colour synesthetes' implicit learning abilities-in a domain far from their synesthetic experiences-differ from those of nonsynesthetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlyn R Bankieris
- 1 Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Ting Qian
- 2 Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
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Rothen N, Seth AK, Ward J. Synesthesia improves sensory memory, when perceptual awareness is high. Vision Res 2018; 153:1-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2018.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Revised: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/08/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Abstract
Although cross-modal neural connections and genetic underpinnings are prominent in most current theories regarding the development of synesthesia, the potential role of associative learning in the formation of synesthetic associations has recently been revitalized. In this study, we investigated implicit associative learning in synesthetes and nonsynesthetes by recording reaction times to a target whose color was probabilistically correlated with its shape. A continuous measure of target detection at multiple time points during learning revealed that synesthetes and nonsynesthetes learn associations differently. Specifically, our results demonstrated a "fast-facilitation" learning effect for nonsynesthetes and a "fast-interference, slow-facilitation" learning effect for synesthetes. Additionally, synesthetes exhibited superior long-term memory for the learned associations in a surprise delayed retest. After this retest, participants implicitly learned new (shuffled) shape-color associations. We found that synesthetes experienced greater interference while learning these new shape-color associations. These results detail ways in which implicit associative learning and memory differ between synesthetes and nonsynesthetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlyn R Bankieris
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA.
| | - Richard N Aslin
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
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Watson MR, Chromý J, Crawford L, Eagleman DM, Enns JT, Akins KA. The prevalence of synaesthesia depends on early language learning. Conscious Cogn 2016; 48:212-231. [PMID: 28013176 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2016.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 09/10/2016] [Accepted: 12/14/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
According to one theory, synaesthesia develops, or is preserved, because it helps children learn. If so, it should be more common among adults who faced greater childhood learning challenges. In the largest survey of synaesthesia to date, the incidence of synaesthesia was compared among native speakers of languages with transparent (easier) and opaque (more difficult) orthographies. Contrary to our prediction, native speakers of Czech (transparent) were more likely to be synaesthetes than native speakers of English (opaque). However, exploratory analyses suggested that this was because more Czechs learned non-native second languages, which was strongly associated with synaesthesia, consistent with the learning hypothesis. Furthermore, the incidence of synaesthesia among speakers of opaque languages was double that among speakers of transparent languages other than Czech, also consistent with the learning hypothesis. These findings contribute to an emerging understanding of synaesthetic development as a complex and lengthy process with multiple causal influences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus R Watson
- Department of Biology, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Jan Chromý
- Institute of the Czech Language and Theory of Communication, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Lyle Crawford
- Department of Philosophy, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - David M Eagleman
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - James T Enns
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Kathleen A Akins
- Department of Philosophy, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
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Rothen N, Jünemann K, Mealor AD, Burckhardt V, Ward J. The sensitivity and specificity of a diagnostic test of sequence-space synesthesia. Behav Res Methods 2016; 48:1476-1481. [PMID: 26558902 PMCID: PMC5101286 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-015-0656-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
People with sequence-space synesthesia (SSS) report stable visuo-spatial forms corresponding to numbers, days, and months (amongst others). This type of synesthesia has intrigued scientists for over 130 years but the lack of an agreed upon tool for assessing it has held back research on this phenomenon. The present study builds on previous tests by measuring the consistency of spatial locations that is known to discriminate controls from synesthetes. We document, for the first time, the sensitivity and specificity of such a test and suggest a diagnostic cut-off point for discriminating between the groups based on the area bounded by different placement attempts with the same item.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Rothen
- School of Psychology and Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Kristin Jünemann
- School of Psychology and Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Andy D Mealor
- School of Psychology and Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Vera Burckhardt
- School of Psychology and Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Jamie Ward
- School of Psychology and Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK.
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Personality and cognitive profiles of a general synesthetic trait. Neuropsychologia 2016; 88:35-48. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2015] [Revised: 11/21/2015] [Accepted: 01/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Abstract
Purpose of review Synesthesia is an extraordinary perceptual phenomenon, in which individuals experience unusual percepts elicited by the activation of an unrelated sensory modality or by a cognitive process. Emotional reactions are commonly associated. The condition prompted philosophical debates on the nature of perception and impacted the course of art history. It recently generated a considerable interest among neuroscientists, but its clinical significance apparently remains underevaluated. This review focuses on the recent studies regarding variants of color synesthesia, the commonest form of the condition. Recent findings Synesthesia is commonly classified as developmental and acquired. Developmental forms predispose to changes in primary sensory processing and cognitive functions, usually with better performances in certain aspects and worse in others, and to heightened creativity. Acquired forms of synesthesia commonly arise from drug ingestion or neurological disorders, including thalamic lesions and sensory deprivation (e.g., blindness). Cerebral exploration using structural and functional imaging has demonstrated distinct patterns in cortical activation and brain connectivity for controls and synesthetes. Artworks of affected painters are most illustrative of the nature of synesthetic experiences. Summary Results of the recent investigations on synesthesia offered a remarkable insight into the mechanisms of perception, emotion and consciousness, and deserve attention both from neuroscientists and from clinicians.
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Yon D, Press C. Back to the future: synaesthesia could be due to associative learning. Front Psychol 2014; 5:702. [PMID: 25071668 PMCID: PMC4083340 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2014] [Accepted: 06/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Yon
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck, University of London London, UK
| | - Clare Press
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck, University of London London, UK
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Watson MR, Akins KA, Spiker C, Crawford L, Enns JT. Synesthesia and learning: a critical review and novel theory. Front Hum Neurosci 2014; 8:98. [PMID: 24592232 PMCID: PMC3938117 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2013] [Accepted: 02/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Learning and synesthesia are profoundly interconnected. On the one hand, the development of synesthesia is clearly influenced by learning. Synesthetic inducers – the stimuli that evoke these unusual experiences – often involve the perception of complex properties learned in early childhood, e.g., letters, musical notes, numbers, months of the year, and even swimming strokes. Further, recent research has shown that the associations individual synesthetes make with these learned inducers are not arbitrary, but are strongly influenced by the structure of the learned domain. For instance, the synesthetic colors of letters are partially determined by letter frequency and the relative positions of letters in the alphabet. On the other hand, there is also a small, but growing, body of literature which shows that synesthesia can influence or be helpful in learning. For instance, synesthetes appear to be able to use their unusual experiences as mnemonic devices and can even exploit them while learning novel abstract categories. Here we review these two directions of influence and argue that they are interconnected. We propose that synesthesia arises, at least in part, because of the cognitive demands of learning in childhood, and that it is used to aid perception and understanding of a variety of learned categories. Our thesis is that the structural similarities between synesthetic triggering stimuli and synesthetic experiences are the remnants, the fossilized traces, of past learning challenges for which synsethesia was helpful.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus R Watson
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Child and Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Kathleen A Akins
- Department of Philosophy, Simon Fraser University Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Chris Spiker
- Department of Philosophy, Simon Fraser University Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Lyle Crawford
- Department of Philosophy, Simon Fraser University Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - James T Enns
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia Vancouver, BC, Canada
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