Acrylamide in deep-fried snacks of India

Acrylamide in alternative snacks to potato: A review

The snack food market has been changing to keep up with the growing demand for healthier products and, as a result, alternative products to traditional potato chips have been emerging to provide health-related benefits. Extrusion, frying, and baking are the main techniques used worldwide in the processing of snacks and are among the main reasons for the formation of toxic compounds induced by heat, such as acrylamide. This contaminant is formed during thermal processing in foods heated at high temperatures and rich in carbohydrates. Processed potato-based products have been pointed out as the main contributors to acrylamide dietary exposure. Many studies have been conducted on potato chips since the discovery of this contaminant in foods and research on the formation of acrylamide in snacks from other vegetables has begun to be conducted more recently. Thus, this review aims to present a detailed discussion on the occurrence of acrylamide in alternative vegetable snacks that are consumed as being healthier and to address relevant questions about the effectiveness of mitigation strategies that have been developed for these products. Through this research, it was observed that, depending on the vegetable, the levels of this contaminant can be quite variable. Alternative snacks, such as sweet potato, carrot and beetroot may also contain high levels of acrylamide and need to be monitored even more closely than potatoes snacks, as less information is available on these food products. Furthermore, various pretreatments (e.g. bleaching, immersion in solutions containing chemical substances) and processing conditions (heating methods, time, temperature) can reduce the formation of acrylamide (54-99 %) in alternative vegetable snacks.

Exploring Maillard reaction markers and melanoidins to investigate toxicological and antioxidant profiles of optimized expanded snacks from corn/common bean mixtures

BACKGROUND

Extrusion cooking of cereal-legume flour mixture is an innovative strategy to introduce nutrient-enriched ready-to-eat snacks to the market. However, this thermal process triggers the formation of compounds that could impact safety aspects of these products. Maillard reaction markers and the end products known as melanoidins were evaluated to assess the toxicological and bioactive profiles of extruded snacks from corn-plus-common-bean-flour combinations. Different molecular weight fractions were isolated and purified to analyze their antioxidant activity and to investigate the role of melanoidins.

RESULTS

The snack formulated with an 84:16 ratio of corn:common bean flours exhibited an enhanced toxicological profile. It displayed the lowest levels of acrylamide and furanic compounds, along with reduced blockage of lysine residues in the protein. Extrusion increased the antioxidant activity of uncooked flours (30 to 64%) and total phenolic compounds (26 to 50%), and decreased the available lysine (-72.7 to -79.5%). During the fractionation process, it was established that compounds within the range of 3-10 kDa made the greatest contribution to antioxidant activity. The fraction greater than 10 kDa, which included melanoidins, displayed 7 to 33% lower antioxidant activity. The purification of the fraction greater than 10 kDa revealed that pure melanoidins represented approximately one-third of the antioxidant activity in that fraction. Non-covalent adducts linked to the melanoidin core therefore had a relevant role in the antioxidant action of formulated snacks.

CONCLUSION

This investigation illustrates the importance of considering both potential risks and associated benefits of compounds formed during the Maillard reaction while developing new extruded snacks. © 2024 The Author(s). Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Advanced glycation end product signaling and metabolic complications: Dietary approach

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are a heterogeneous collection of compounds formed during industrial processing and home cooking through a sequence of nonenzymatic glycation reactions. The modern western diet is full of heat-treated foods that contribute to AGE intake. Foods high in AGEs in the contemporary diet include processed cereal products. Due to industrialization and marketing strategies, restaurant meals are modified rather than being traditionally or conventionally cooked. Fried, grilled, baked, and boiled foods have the greatest AGE levels. Higher AGE-content foods include dry nuts, roasted walnuts, sunflower seeds, fried chicken, bacon, and beef. Animal proteins and processed plant foods contain furosine, acrylamide, heterocyclic amines, and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. Furosine (2-furoil-methyl-lysine) is an amino acid found in cooked meat products and other processed foods. High concentrations of carboxymethyl-lysine, carboxyethyl-lysine, and methylglyoxal-O are found in heat-treated nonvegetarian foods, peanut butter, and cereal items. Increased plasma levels of AGEs, which are harmful chemicals that lead to age-related diseases and physiological aging, diabetes, and autoimmune/inflammatory rheumatic diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis. AGEs in the pathophysiology of metabolic diseases have been linked to individuals with diabetes mellitus who have peripheral nerves with high amounts of AGEs and diabetes has been linked to increased myelin glycation. Insulin resistance and hyperglycemia can impact numerous human tissues and organs, leading to long-term difficulties in a number of systems and organs, including the cardiovascular system. Plasma AGE levels are linked to all-cause mortality in individuals with diabetes who have fatal or nonfatal coronary artery disease, such as ventricular dysfunction. High levels of tissue AGEs are independently associated with cardiac systolic dysfunction in diabetic patients with heart failure compared with diabetic patients without heart failure. It is widely recognized that AGEs and oxidative stress play a key role in the cardiovascular complications of diabetes because they both influence and are impacted by oxidative stress. All chronic illnesses involve protein, lipid, or nucleic acid modifications including crosslinked and nondegradable aggregates known as AGEs. Endogenous AGE formation or dietary AGE uptake can result in additional protein modifications and stimulation of several inflammatory signaling pathways. Many of these systems, however, require additional explanation because they are not entirely obvious. This review summarizes the current evidence regarding dietary sources of AGEs and metabolism-related complications associated with AGEs.

Neurotoxicity of acrylamide in adult zebrafish following short-term and long-term exposure: evaluation of behavior alterations, oxidative stress markers, expression of antioxidant genes, and histological examination of the brain and eyes

In the present work, 224 adult female zebrafish (56 fish in each group) were randomly divided into four groups (two control groups and two toxicity groups) as per duration of exposure (7 and 21 days). All fish of the two toxicity groups were exposed to 0.610 mM acrylamide (ACR) concentration for 7 and 21 days. The effects of ACR exposure on behavior, oxidative stress biomarkers, molecular expression of antioxidant genes (sod, cat, and nrf2), and histopathological examination of the brain and eye were examined. Our result shows that ACR exposure for 7 days produced an anxiety-like behavior in zebrafish. Short-term exposure of ACR resulted in alterations of oxidative stress markers (SOD and CAT activity, and the level of GSH and MDA) in the brain and eye of zebrafish. However, the antioxidant defense system of adult female zebrafish could be able to counteract the free radicals generated in long-term ACR exposure as indicated by non-significant difference in oxidative insult following short-term and long-term exposure. ACR exposure downregulated the mRNA expression of the sod, cat, and nrf2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2) genes in the brain and eye without significant difference between the two toxicity groups. Mild histological changes in the dorsal telencephalic area, tectum opticum, medulla, and hypothalamus area of the brain of zebrafish have been observed following short-term and long-term ACR exposure. In the eye, marked histological changes in the retinal pigmented epithelium layer (RPE), structural changes of the photoreceptor layer (PRL) with disorganized layer of rods and cones, and reduction of the relative thickness of the RPE, PRL, outer nuclear layer (ONL), and inner nuclear layer (INL) have been noted following ACR exposure for 21 days as compared to 7 days. ACR produced neurobehavioral aberrations and oxidative stress within 7 days of exposure, while various histological changes in the brain and eyes have been observed following long-term exposure (21 days) to ACR.

Acrylamide content in starch based commercial foods by using high performance liquid chromatography and its association with browning index

The harmful effects of acrylamide (AA) are a major health concern for human beings. To find out the levels of AA content in commercial food products, 43 samples representing 3 important product categories (French fries, bakery biscuits, and branded biscuits) were procured from the local market in Allahabad, India. An assay of AA was done using HPLC-DAD. The LOD and LOQ for AA were 3.733 and 11.045 ng/μl, respectively. The AA recovery from ten standard solutions was 100.6 percent, indicating good extraction efficiency. Level of AA ranged between 144.35 and 781.17 μg/kg, 126.33-664.90 μg/kg, and 825.96-1143.15 μg/kg, in branded biscuits, bakery biscuits, and French fries, respectively. A strong and positive correlation of AA was found with HMF, a* value, BI and negatively with ΔE (P ≤ 0.01). It is concluded that a high browning index is significantly associated with AA content and can be used as a screening food to reduce the intake of AA in the diet.

Review on Acrylamide: A Hidden Hazard in Fried Carbohydrate-Rich Food

Abstract:

Acrylamide is classified as a hazard whose formation in carbohydrate-rich food cooked at a high temperature has created much interest in the scientific community. The review attempts to comprehend the chemistry and mechanisms of formation of acrylamide and its levels in popular foods. A detailed study of the toxicokinetic and biochemistry, carcinogenicity, neurotoxicity, genotoxicity, interaction with biomolecules, and its effects on reproductive health has been presented. The review outlines the various novel and low-cost conventional as well as newer analytical techniques for the detection of acrylamide in foods with the maximum permissible limits. Various effective approaches that can be undertaken in industries and households for the mitigation of levels of acrylamide in foods have also been discussed. This review will assist to provide in depth understanding about acrylamide that will make it simpler to assess the risk to human health from the consumption of foods containing low amounts of acrylamide.

Dietary Pattern, Genomic Stability and Relative Cancer Risk in Asian Food Landscape

The incidence of cancer globally is increasing, partly due to lifestyle factors. Despite a better understanding of cancer biology and advancement in cancer management and therapies, current strategies in cancer treatment remain costly and cause socioeconomic burden especially in Asian countries. Hence, instead of putting more efforts in searches for new cancer cures, attention has now shifted to understanding how to mitigate cancer risk by modulating lifestyle factors. It has been established that carcinogenesis is multifactorial, and the important detrimental role of oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, and genomic instability is evident. To date, there is no study linking dietary pattern and genomic stability in cancer risk in the Asian food landscape. Thus, this present review article discusses recent literature on dietary pattern and genomic stability and its relationship with cancer risk in Asia.

An improved extraction method for acrylamide determination in fruit and vegetable chips through enzyme addition

An enzyme-addition method to pretreat fried fruit and vegetable chips for acrylamide analysis is reported, followed by determination of the acrylamide contents in 36 marketed fruit and vegetable chip products using LC-MS/MS. To improve the extraction process, the FDA method was modified. Specifically, digestive enzymes were added, overcoming the clogging of filters (or SPE cartridges) after extraction of vegetable chips using water. Diastase was added to extract high-starch products, including potato chips. Recoveries of 90.3-105.5% acrylamide were obtained at the spiking levels of 25-500 μg/kg. LOD and LOQ were similar between the method with (4.5 and 13.7 μg/kg) and without diastase addition (4.4 and 13.2 μg/kg). Okra chip with high mucin content was extracted after adding pepsin. This method provided a recovery of 99.8-102.2%, LOD of 6.0 μg/kg, and LOQ of 18.1 μg/kg. Both methods could be used for analyzing acrylamide, with critical method parameters satisfying European Union regulations.

Long-term acrylamide exposure exacerbates brain and lung pathology in a mouse malaria model

The consumption of dietary acrylamide (ACR), a carcinogen, results in the dysfunction of various organs and the immune system. However, the impact of ACR exposure on the progression of infectious diseases is unknown. This study investigated the effect of ACR on the progression of malaria infection using a mouse model of malaria. C57BL/6 mice were continuously treated with ACR at a dose of 20 mg/kg bodyweight/day for six weeks (long-term exposure) or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Next, the mice were infected with the rodent malaria parasite, Plasmodium berghei NK65 (PbNK). Parasitemia and survival rate were analyzed in the different treatment groups. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and histopathological analyses were performed to evaluate the effect of ACR exposure on the morphology of various organs. Long-term ACR exposure exacerbated PbNK-induced multiorgan dysfunction. MRI and histopathological analysis revealed signs of encephalomeningitis and acute respiratory distress syndrome in the PbNK-infected long-term ACR exposure mice, which decreased the survival rate of mice, but not in the PbNK-infected long-term PBS exposure group. These findings enhance our understanding of the impact of ACR on the progression of infectious diseases, such as malaria.

Optimization of the roasting conditions to lower acrylamide content and improve the nutrient composition and antioxidant properties of Coffea arabica

Roasting is the most common method of processing coffee. During roasting, aromatic compounds are generated due to various reactions, which are important for developing color, flavor and aroma. Acrylamide is an undesirable carcinogenic substance that is metabolically activated and formed during the coffee roasting process. Coffea arabica was first found in Ethiopia, and Ethiopia can produce a large volume of coffee. The major coffee-producing areas in Ethiopia are Hararghe, Sidama, Gimbi/Nekemte, Yergachefe and Limu. The primary purpose of this study was to quantify the acrylamide contents of brewed and roasted coffee collected from street coffee sellers and industrial processors found in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and optimize the roasting conditions for Sidama coffee. The acrylamide contents were determined by HPLC using a DAD at 210 nm, the antioxidant property were examined using a UV-spectrophotometer, and moisture and nutrient composition of coffee was determined using the method described by the AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists). The roasting temperature and time were optimized based on the acrylamide content, nutritional composition and antioxidant property of the coffee using central composite design. The roasting temperature and time significantly affected (p<0.05) the acrylamide level, nutritional composition and antioxidant property of the coffee. The acrylamide contents of street and industrial processed powdered coffee were 346 ±19 to 701±38μg/kg and 442±14 to 906±7μg/kg, respectively. Brewed coffee from street vendors and industrial processing had acrylamide contents of 25±2 to 49±1μg/L and 63±2 to 89±4μg/L, respectively. The EC50 values for scavenging radicals for the optimized coffee ranged from 171±0 to 111±4 μg/L. The optimal roasting temperature and time were 190°C and 6 minutes, at this temperature and time the acrylamide content decreased, and the antioxidant and nutritional compositions of the coffee improved.

Higher ultra-processed food intake is associated with higher DNA damage in healthy adolescents

Ultra-processed food is one of the main contributors to energy supply and consumption in food systems worldwide, and evidence of their detrimental health outcomes in humans is emerging. This study aimed to assess ultra-processed food intake and its association with urinary levels of 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), a biomarker of DNA oxidative damage, in 139 healthy adolescents in Karaj City in Iran. Usual dietary intake was measured using a 168-item validated FFQ. The daily intake of ultra-processed food consumption was determined through the classification of NOVA, and general linear models were used to compare the urinary levels of 8-OHdG/creatinine (ng/mg creatinine) within tertiles of ultra-processed food intake. Adolescents in the higher tertile of ultra-processed food consumption had a significantly higher mean level of urinary 8-OHdG/creatinine in comparison with the lower tertiles in the crude model (Pfor trend: 0·003) and after adjustment for confounding variables, including total energy intake, sex, age, BMI for age Z-score, obesity and physical activity (Pfor trend: 0·004). This association was still significant after adjusting for dietary intake of whole grains, nuts, legumes, the ratio of MUFA:SFA (g/d) and Mediterranean dietary score (Pfor trend: 0·002). More studies are needed to explore the determinants of ultra-processed food supply, demand, consumption and health effects; such studies should be applied to develop evidence-informed policies and regulatory mechanisms to improve children’s and adolescents’ food environment policymaking and legislation with special attention to ultra-processed food.

Determination of acrylamide in gingerbread and other food samples by HILIC-MS/MS: A dilute-and-shoot method

This paper describes a hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometric (HILIC-MS/MS) method for determining acrylamide in food. The method primary optimised for gingerbread samples that have high sugar contents. A new sample preparation process was optimized using an experiment design based on a central composition design (CCD). A mixture of acidified aqueous acetonitrile was established as a suitable extraction medium. The extracts were further diluted and separation of acrylamide on TSKgel Amide-80 HILIC column was carried out within 8 min. The method was validated using naturally contaminated quality check (QC) as well as spiked samples. The developed method showed acceptable accuracy (101% - 105%) and precision (2.9% - 7.6%). The limit of quantification was 20 µg/kg. The method was also tested by analysing acrylamide in other food samples (bread, roasted coffee, instant coffee, cappuccino powder and fried potato). The acrylamide concentrations found in samples were between 20 µg/kg and 667 µg/kg, which were lower than the benchmark levels set by the European Union (EU). The main advantage of the newly developed method over the standard methods included the easier sample preparation and faster analysis with reduced ion suppression.

Comparative Study of Four Analytical Methods for the Routine Determination of Acrylamide in Black Ripe Olives

Reducing acrylamide in foods is an important scientific and regulatory goal. Black ripe olives contain significant levels of acrylamide. However, unlike cereal and potato products, there are no standardized methods or certified reference materials for olives and no harmonization between laboratories performing routine analyses. The industry has observed inconsistencies between laboratories using different analytical methods. To narrow the cause of this variability, acrylamide was extracted from olives using a single protocol and analyzed with the most commonly used routine methods: liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection (LC-UV) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) without bromination and LC-UV and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) following bromination. This design specifically evaluated the effects of sample derivatization and detector on acrylamide measurements, which has not been documented for any food. Accuracy, precision, sensitivity, linearity, and reproducibility were assessed, and 10 commercial olive samples were analyzed. LC-MS/MS demonstrated the best overall performance. Although derivatization decreased precision and reproducibility, all detection methods had comparable accuracy and calculated acrylamide values. The results suggest that harmonization of extraction protocols across laboratories is the most important area of future study. This study provides the framework for a standardized method for acrylamide analysis in olives. Reliable measurements are essential for aiding the decision making of the industry and regulatory agencies.

Alternative food matrices for snack formulations in terms of acrylamide formation and mitigation

BACKGROUND

The salty snack market is re-inventing itself trying to offer to consumers healthier and added-value products often based on alternative vegetables/cereals, such as vegetable chips. New options mostly involve a nutritional improvement but the toxicological aspects of the reformulation are not usually examined. This work evaluated the acrylamide formation and effectiveness of different mitigation strategies in potato chips and in alternative snacks, such as carrot and pumpkin chips. Fresh potato, carrot and pumpkin samples were fried under controlled conditions and after being subjected to different operations (soaking in water at different times/temperatures, adding lemon or vinegar as pH modifiers or salt).

RESULTS

Acrylamide values in control samples of carrot (224 ± 47 µg kg^-1 ) and pumpkin (514 ± 83 µg kg^-1 ) were significantly lower than in the potato chip samples (3887 ± 509 µg kg^-1 ). The different mitigation treatments had effects on potato and pumpkin chips, the most effective strategies being soaking options and the decrease of the pH of the medium. However, such treatments were not as effective in carrot chips.

CONCLUSIONS

These new vegetable snacks could be a healthy alternative both at nutritional and toxicological level. In addition, acrylamide concentration could even be reduced with simple mitigation operations before frying. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Acrylamide Mitigation in Fried Kochchi Kesel Chips Using Free and Immobilized Fungal Asparaginase

Acrylamide is formed when food products are fried at high temperature. Food researchers are constantly working on developing efficient methods for mitigating acrylamide in fried foods. In the present study, asparaginase from Aspergillus terreus was used for the pretreatment of kochchi kesel banana slices before frying to mitigate acrylamide formation during frying. The soaking and frying conditions were optimized using free and chitosan-immobilized asparaginase. The optimal soaking temperature and time were found to be 60 °C and 20 min, respectively. The optimal activity of free and chitosan-immobilized asparaginase was found to be 5 U/mL. The optimal frying temperature and time for both free and chitosan-immobilized asparaginase were found to be 180 °C for 25 min with an acrylamide mass fraction of 1866 and 954 µg/kg, respectively. The kinetics and thermodynamics of enzymatic mitigation of acrylamide in kochchi kesel chips were also studied. It was concluded that the chitosan-immobilized asparaginase pretreatment of kochchi kesel slices is an effective method for mitigation of acrylamide.

Acrylamide levels in selected Colombian foods

Acrylamide (AA) levels in conventional (n = 112) and traditional (n = 43) Colombian foods were analysed by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) detection. Samples included: infant powdered formula, coffee and chocolate powders, corn snacks, bakery products and tuber-, meat- and vegetable-based foods. There was a wide variability in AA levels among different foods and within different brands of the same food, especially for coffee powder, breakfast cereals biscuits and French fries samples. Among the conventional foods tested, the highest mean AA value was found in bakery products, such as biscuit (1104 µg kg(-1)) and wafer (1449 µg kg(-1)), followed by potato chips (916 µg kg(-1)). On the other hand, among the traditional foods, higher AA amounts were detected in fried platano (2813 µg kg(-1)) and yuca (3755 µg kg(-1)) compared to other products. Interestingly, the arepa, a traditional Colombian bakery product made with corn flour, showed a lower AA content (< 75 µg kg(-1)) when compared with similar bakery products tested, such as soft bread (102-594 µg kg(-1)), which is a made with wheat flour.