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Nazareth TDM, Soriano Pérez E, Luz C, Meca G, Quiles JM. Comprehensive Review of Aflatoxin and Ochratoxin A Dynamics: Emergence, Toxicological Impact, and Advanced Control Strategies. Foods 2024; 13:1920. [PMID: 38928866 PMCID: PMC11203094 DOI: 10.3390/foods13121920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 06/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Filamentous fungi exhibit remarkable adaptability to diverse substrates and can synthesize a plethora of secondary metabolites. These metabolites, produced in response to environmental stimuli, not only confer selective advantages but also encompass potentially deleterious mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, exemplified by those originating from Alternaria, Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium species, represent challenging hazards to both human and animal health, thus warranting stringent regulatory control. Despite regulatory frameworks, mycotoxin contamination remains a pressing global challenge, particularly within cereal-based matrices and their derived by-products, integral components of animal diets. Strategies aimed at mitigating mycotoxin contamination encompass multifaceted approaches, including biological control modalities, detoxification procedures, and innovative interventions like essential oils. However, hurdles persist, underscoring the imperative for innovative interventions. This review elucidated the prevalence, health ramifications, regulatory paradigms, and evolving preventive strategies about two prominent mycotoxins, aflatoxins and ochratoxin A. Furthermore, it explored the emergence of new fungal species, and biocontrol methods using lactic acid bacteria and essential mustard oil, emphasizing their efficacy in mitigating fungal spoilage and mycotoxin production. Through an integrative examination of these facets, this review endeavored to furnish a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted challenges posed by mycotoxin contamination and the emergent strategies poised to ameliorate its impact on food and feed safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago de Melo Nazareth
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain; (E.S.P.); (C.L.); (G.M.); (J.M.Q.)
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Arimboor R. Metabolites and degradation pathways of microbial detoxification of aflatoxins: a review. Mycotoxin Res 2024; 40:71-83. [PMID: 38151634 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-023-00515-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/29/2023]
Abstract
The degradation of aflatoxins using nonpathogenic microbes and their enzymes is emerging as a safe and economical alternative to chemical and physical methods for the detoxification of aflatoxins in food and feeds. Many bacteria and fungi have been identified as aflatoxin degraders. This review is focused on the chemical identification of microbial degradation products and their degradation pathways. The microbial degradations of aflatoxins are initiated by oxidation, hydroxylation, reduction, or elimination reactions mostly catalyzed by various enzymes belonging to the classes of laccase, reductases, and peroxidases. The resulting products with lesser chemical stability further undergo various reactions to form low molecular weight products. Studies on the chemical and biological nature of degraded products of aflatoxins are necessary to ensure the safety of the decontamination process. This review indicated the need for an integrated approach including decontamination studies using culture media and food matrices, proper identification and toxicity profiling of degraded products of aflatoxins, and interactions of microbes and the degradation products with food matrices for developing practical and effective microbial detoxification process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ranjith Arimboor
- Spices Board Quality Evaluation Laboratory, SIPCOT, Gummidipoondi, Chennai, 601201, India.
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Aberedew K, Ayelign A. Aflatoxin contamination in red pepper from producers in Addis Ababa. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS. PART B, SURVEILLANCE 2023; 16:1-7. [PMID: 35854632 DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2022.2102678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
This study was conducted to determine the occurrence and levels of aflatoxins in powder red pepper. Thirty powder red pepper samples commercially available in Addis Ababa market were collected and the level of aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2) was determined. Aflatoxins were detected in almost all of the samples at concentrations ranging from 0.4 to 52.3 µg/kg. AFB1 was detected in all of the red pepper samples, with levels ranging from 1.8 to 33.3 µg/kg. Out of all the AFB1 positive samples, 25 (83%) contained AFB1 above the EU limit of 5 µg/kg, while 29 (97%) of the samples exceeded the maximum limit of 10 µg/kg for total aflatoxins. Further, all the red pepper samples were contaminated by AFG1 with levels ranging from 0.7 to 52.3 µg/kg. Overall, the majority of the red pepper collected in Addis Ababa market was contaminated by aflatoxins above the EU limit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kidist Aberedew
- Center for Food Science and Nutrition, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Abebe Ayelign
- Center for Food Science and Nutrition, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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Fernando AJ, Amaratunga S. Application of far-infrared radiation for sun-dried chili pepper (Capsicum annum L.): drying characteristics and color during roasting. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2022; 102:3781-3787. [PMID: 34921411 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.11726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Revised: 10/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chili is hygroscopic and needs a fast-drying method before feeding into pulverizers. The far-infrared radiation (FIR) roasting technique provides various benefits, such as higher drying rates within a short duration, reduction of mycotoxins, and improvement in the textural quality of agricultural produce. In addition, thin-layer modeling supports understanding the drying kinetics of agricultural produce. Therefore, the objective of this research was to study the thin-layer drying characteristics and color of whole chili pod and its components (i.e. seeds, pedicel, and placenta) of sun-dried chili during FIR roasting. The samples were dried at 7.76 μm (100 °C), 6.12 μm (200 °C), 5.056 μm (300 °C), and 4.30 μm (400 °C) by exposing them to FIR in a single layer and the drying kinetics were studied using the Midilli model. Further, the color variation during FIR roasting was studied. RESULTS FIR roasting of chili pods and their components (i.e. seeds, pedicel, and placenta) shows a falling rate drying period at each wavelength. The moisture content decreased with decreasing FIR wavelength. The ∆E values for pods, pedicel, and placenta were increased during FIR roasting. The Midilli model results in R2 and root-mean-square error value ranges of 0.7563-1.000 and 5 × 10-8 -0.1238 respectively for the current study. The Midilli model at 300 °C shows that the FIR has minor variation compared with other FIR temperatures. CONCLUSION FIR technology can be implemented to roast chili pods and their components (i.e. seeds, pedicel, and placenta) within a short period. Further, the application of FIR for roasting purposes desirably increases the color variation. The Midilli model can effectively describe the drying kinetics of the chili pods and their components during FIR roasting. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Jayaruwani Fernando
- Department of Agricultural Engineering and Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, Puliyankulama, Sri Lanka
- Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
| | - Sanath Amaratunga
- Department of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
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Rajendran S, Shunmugam G, Mallikarjunan K, Paranidharan V, Venugopal AP. Prevalence of aflatoxin contamination in red chilli pepper (
Capsicum annum
L.) from India. Int J Food Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/ijfs.15103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sasireka Rajendran
- Department of Food Process Engineering Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Coimbatore Tamil Nadu 641003 India
| | - Ganapathy Shunmugam
- Department of Food Process Engineering Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Coimbatore Tamil Nadu 641003 India
| | - Kumar Mallikarjunan
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition University of Minnesota Eckles Ave Saint Paul MN 55108 USA
| | | | - Arun Prasath Venugopal
- Department of Food Process Engineering Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Coimbatore Tamil Nadu 641003 India
- Department of Food Process Engineering National Institute of Technology Rourkela India
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Sahar N, Arif S, Iqbal S, Riaz S, Fatima T, Ara J, Banks J. Effects of drying surfaces and physical attributes on the development of Aflatoxins (AFs) in red chilies. J FOOD PROCESS PRES 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.16173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Najmus Sahar
- Pakistan Agriculture Research Council Food Quality & Safety Research Institute Southern‐zone Agricultural Research Centre Karachi Pakistan
| | - Saqib Arif
- Pakistan Agriculture Research Council Food Quality & Safety Research Institute Southern‐zone Agricultural Research Centre Karachi Pakistan
| | - Sajid Iqbal
- Jinnah Government Degree College Karachi Pakistan
| | - Sundas Riaz
- Pakistan Agriculture Research Council Food Quality & Safety Research Institute Southern‐zone Agricultural Research Centre Karachi Pakistan
| | - Tehseen Fatima
- Dow College of Biotechnology Dow University of Health Sciences Karachi Pakistan
| | - Jahn Ara
- Department of Food Science & Technology University of Karachi Karachi Pakistan
| | - John Banks
- Faculty of Science Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool UK
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Getahun E, Gabbiye N, Delele MA, Fanta SW, Gebrehiwot MG, Vanierschot M. Effect of maturity on the moisture sorption isotherm of chili pepper ( M a reko Fana variety). Heliyon 2020; 6:e04608. [PMID: 32793831 PMCID: PMC7408329 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The moisture sorption isotherm at three maturity levels of the Mareko Fana chili pepper variety (red, brown and green) has been studied in this paper. The sorption isotherm was determined based on the standard static gravimetric method using a glycerol-water mixture in a relative humidity range of 10–92% at three temperature levels and nonlinear regression analysis was used to select suitable sorption models. The Clasius - Clapeyron equation was implemented to determine the isosteric heat of sorption of the chili pepper using the experimental equilibrium moisture content at different sorption temperature levels. The results showed that the GAB model was well fitted for green chili pepper, while the OSWIN model described well the brown and red chili variant. There was a difference in net isosteric heat between the adsorption and desorption isotherm of chili pepper maturity. For green chili, the maximum value of the net isosteric heat was 18 kJ mol−1 and 20 kJ mol−1 for adsorption and desorption isotherms, respectively and it decreased exponentially as moisture content increased. The desorption heat was higher than the adsorption heat for each maturity of chili pepper which indicated the existence of hysteresis in the sorption process. In comparison to literature data reported for different chili varieties, Mareko Fana has a lower heat of sorption and monolayer moisture content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eshetu Getahun
- Bahir Dar Energy Center, Bahir Dar Technology Institute, Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia
- KU Leuven, Mechanical Engineering Technology Cluster TC, Group T Leuven Campus, A. Vesaliusstraat 13, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Faculty of Chemical and Food Engineering, Bahir Dar Technology Institute, Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia
| | - Nigus Gabbiye
- Faculty of Chemical and Food Engineering, Bahir Dar Technology Institute, Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia
| | - Mulugeta A. Delele
- Faculty of Chemical and Food Engineering, Bahir Dar Technology Institute, Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia
- Corresponding author.
| | - Solomon W. Fanta
- Faculty of Chemical and Food Engineering, Bahir Dar Technology Institute, Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia
| | - Mekonnen Gebreslasie Gebrehiwot
- KU Leuven, Mechanical Engineering Technology Cluster TC, Group T Leuven Campus, A. Vesaliusstraat 13, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Maarten Vanierschot
- KU Leuven, Mechanical Engineering Technology Cluster TC, Group T Leuven Campus, A. Vesaliusstraat 13, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
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Namulawa VT, Mutiga S, Musimbi F, Akello S, Ngángá F, Kago L, Kyallo M, Harvey J, Ghimire S. Assessment of Fungal Contamination in Fish Feed from the Lake Victoria Basin, Uganda. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12040233. [PMID: 32272644 PMCID: PMC7232351 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12040233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 03/28/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of commercial fish farming has stimulated the establishment of fish feed factories in Uganda. However, no information is available on the safety of the feed, mainly due to lack of mycotoxin testing facilities and weak regulatory systems. A study was carried out to examine fungal colonization and mycotoxin contamination in fish feed samples (n = 147) of different types collected from nine fish farms (n = 81) and seven fish feed factories (n = 66) in the Lake Victoria Basin (LVB). Fungi were isolated in potato dextrose agar, grouped into morphotypes and representative isolates from each morphotype were identified based on the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of ribosomal DNA sequences. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and total fumonisin (combinations of B1, B2 and B3; hereinafter named fumonisin) levels in feed samples were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). A wide range of fungi, including toxigenic Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium verticillioides, were isolated from the fish feed samples. AFB1 was detected in 48% of the factory samples and in 63% of the farm samples, with toxin levels <40 and >400 µg/kg, respectively. Similarly, 31% of the factory samples and 29% of the farm samples had fumonisin contamination ranging between 0.1 and 4.06 mg/kg. Pellets and powder had higher mycotoxin contamination compared to other commercially available fish feed types. This study shows AFB1 as a potential fish feed safety issue in the LVB and suggests a need for more research on mycotoxin residues in fish fillets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Tibenda Namulawa
- National Agricultural Research Organization, Aquaculture Research & Development Center, P.O. Box 530, Kampala 00256, Uganda;
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA–ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; (S.M.); (S.A.); (F.N.); (L.K.); (M.K.); (J.H.); (S.G.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Samuel Mutiga
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA–ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; (S.M.); (S.A.); (F.N.); (L.K.); (M.K.); (J.H.); (S.G.)
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, NC 72701, USA
| | - Fred Musimbi
- National Agricultural Research Organization, Aquaculture Research & Development Center, P.O. Box 530, Kampala 00256, Uganda;
| | - Sundy Akello
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA–ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; (S.M.); (S.A.); (F.N.); (L.K.); (M.K.); (J.H.); (S.G.)
| | - Fredrick Ngángá
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA–ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; (S.M.); (S.A.); (F.N.); (L.K.); (M.K.); (J.H.); (S.G.)
| | - Leah Kago
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA–ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; (S.M.); (S.A.); (F.N.); (L.K.); (M.K.); (J.H.); (S.G.)
| | - Martina Kyallo
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA–ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; (S.M.); (S.A.); (F.N.); (L.K.); (M.K.); (J.H.); (S.G.)
| | - Jagger Harvey
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA–ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; (S.M.); (S.A.); (F.N.); (L.K.); (M.K.); (J.H.); (S.G.)
- Feed the Future Innovation Lab for the Reduction of Post-Harvest Loss, and Department of Plant Pathology; Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Sita Ghimire
- Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute (BecA–ILRI) Hub, P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; (S.M.); (S.A.); (F.N.); (L.K.); (M.K.); (J.H.); (S.G.)
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El Darra N, Gambacorta L, Solfrizzo M. Multimycotoxins occurrence in spices and herbs commercialized in Lebanon. Food Control 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.07.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Maurya VK, Gothandam KM, Ranjan V, Shakya A, Pareek S. Effect of drying methods (microwave vacuum, freeze, hot air and sun drying) on physical, chemical and nutritional attributes of five pepper (Capsicum annuum var. annuum) cultivars. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2018; 98:3492-3500. [PMID: 29314034 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.8868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2017] [Revised: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 12/29/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A randomized block design experiment was performed to investigate the influence of drying on the physical, chemical and nutritional quality attributes of five prominent cultivars of India under sun drying (SD) (mean temperature 35.5 °C, average daily radiation 5.26 kW h m-2 and mean relative humidity 73.66% RH), hot air drying (HD) at 65 °C, microwave vacuum drying (MVD) (800 W, 5 kPa) and freeze drying (FD) (-50 °C, 5 kPa). Water activity, pH, total phenolic content (TPC), ascorbic acid (AA), capsaicin, β-carotene, color and Scoville heat unit were studied. RESULTS TPC, AA, capsaicin content, β-carotene, color and water activity were significantly affected by the drying method. FD was observed to be most efficient in minimizing the loss of color, capsaicin and β-carotene. The hotness of analyzed samples decreased in the order 'Bird's Eye' > 'Sannam S4' > 'CO-4' > 'PLR-1' > 'PKM-1' among the studied cultivars, and FD > MVD > HD > SD among the drying methods. CONCLUSION The FD method was observed to be the most efficient drying method for retaining capsaicin content over other drying methods (SD, HD, MVD), whereas MVD was found to be most efficient in minimizing the loss to nutritional attributes for all five pepper cultivars. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaibhav Kumar Maurya
- Department of Basic and Applied Science, National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management, Sonepat, Haryana, India
| | | | - Vijay Ranjan
- Cytogene Research and Development, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Amita Shakya
- Department of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management, Sonepat, Haryana, India
| | - Sunil Pareek
- Department of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management, Sonepat, Haryana, India
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Shirkole SS, Sutar PP. Modeling sorption phenomena and moisture migration rates in paprika ( Capsicum annuum L.) using physicochemical characteristics. JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2018; 55:678-688. [PMID: 29391632 PMCID: PMC5785393 DOI: 10.1007/s13197-017-2977-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 11/25/2017] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, the GAB and moisture migration rate models were used to predict the shelf life of paprika under domestic (40 °C and 90% RH) and industrial (5, 10, 15 and 20 °C with 70% RH) storage conditions. The correlations between physicochemical characteristics and moisture content of paprika were developed to estimate the stability of the paprika. The estimated shelf life of low moisture paprika (4.40% dry basis) was found to be 101 and 31 days in HDPE and LDPE packages, respectively when stored in domestic condition. In industrial storage condition, the shelf life prediction was 5.47 years in HDPE and 1.68 years in LDPE packages. The first order kinetic models of extractable color (ASTA) and degree of caking described the quality degradation of paprika during storage. The relative humidity and temperature of the storage environment were significant parameters affecting the stability of paprika. The shelf life of paprika can be extended by storage at or below monolayer moisture content and low temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. S. Shirkole
- Department of Food Process Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, Rourkela, 769008 India
| | - P. P. Sutar
- Department of Food Process Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, Rourkela, 769008 India
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Asghar MA, Zahir E, Rantilal S, Ahmed A, Iqbal J. Aflatoxins in composite spices collected from local markets of Karachi, Pakistan. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS PART B-SURVEILLANCE 2016; 9:113-9. [DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2016.1150356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Özkan A, Bindak R, Erkmen O. Aflatoxin B₁ and aflatoxins in ground red chilli pepper after drying. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS PART B-SURVEILLANCE 2015; 8:227-33. [PMID: 26099014 DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2015.1063014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
In this study, 180 red chilli pepper (RCP) berry samples were obtained from two different croplands of Gaziantep and Kahramanmaraş (Turkey) in August, September and October. RCP berry samples were dried under sunlight and grinded. Ground red chilli pepper (GRCP) samples were analysed for aflatoxins (AFs, sum of B1, B2, G1 and G2) and AFB1 contamination. According to the results, in 49 of 180 samples, AFB1 and in 37 samples, AFs were higher than legal limits. The lowest amounts of AFs and AFB1 were obtained in August and the highest amounts in October. χ(2) analysis showed that there were no significant differences (p > 0.05) between cities among 3 months according to number of samples with AFs and AFB1 above legal limits. According to the Duncan multiple-range test, there was no significant difference between all months. Strict measures are necessary to produce high-quality GRCP. RCP berry must be treated to reduce moulds before production of GRCP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Özkan
- a Department of Gastronomy, Culinary Arts , Gaziantep University , Gaziantep , Turkey
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