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A Review of the Analytical Methods for the Determination of 4(5)-Methylimidazole in Food Matrices. CHEMOSENSORS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/chemosensors9110322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
4(5)-Methylimidazole (4(5)MEI) is a product of the Maillard reaction between sugars and amino acids, which occurs during the thermal processing of foods. This compound is also found in foods with caramel colorants additives. Due to its prevalence in foods and beverages and its potent carcinogenicity, 4(5)MEI has received federal and state regulatory agency attention. The aim of this review is to present the extraction procedures of 4(5)MEI from food matrices and the analytical methods for its determination. Liquid and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry are the techniques most commonly employed to detect 4(5)MEI in food matrices. However, the analysis of 4(5)MEI is challenging due to the high polarity, water solubility, and the absence of chromophores. To overcome this, specialized sample pretreatment and extraction methods have been developed, such as solid-phase extraction and derivatization procedures, increasing the cost and the preparation time of samples. Other analytical methods for the determination of 4(5)MEI, include capillary electrophoresis, paper spray mass spectrometry, micellar electrokinetic chromatography, high-performance cation exchange chromatography, fluorescence-based immunochromatographic assay, and a fluorescent probe.
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Buczkowska M, Paciorek K, Kapcińska A, Górski M. Caramel colors in terms of scientific research, with particular
consideration of their toxicity. POSTEP HIG MED DOSW 2021. [DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0014.8497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Caramel colors, the most common food additives in the world, are divided into four classes (IIV),
marked with the symbols E150 a-d, respectively. Individual classes of caramel colors differ
from each other in physico-chemical properties and the method of preparation, which affects
the formation of various compounds that are important for the assessment of food safety A number of studies on all caramel classes of have been performed, including toxicokinetic,
genotoxic, carcinogenic and reproductive and developmental toxicity studies, which have
not shown harmful effects of these additives at doses not exceeding ADI. However, there is
an increasing number of scientific reports of the possible toxic effects present in caramels of
low-molecular compounds. Currently, three compounds are considered to be toxicologically
important and resulting from the possible concentration in the final product: 5-HMF (present
in all classes), 4(5)-MeI (present in caramel classes III and IV) or THI (present in caramel
class III). 4(5)-MeI has a neurotoxic effect and was considered in 2011 as a possible human
carcinogen (class 2B, according to IARC). In the case of THI, studies have confirmed its lymphopenic
activity, probably secondary to its immunosuppressive effect. Consequently, in the
1980s, JECFA set acceptable levels 4(5)-MeI and THI, for the caramel classes in which these
compounds may be present. The toxicity of 5-HMF has not been confirmed unequivocally,
but studies have shown that this compound is not neutral to living organisms.
Currently, most international organizations and scientific institutes recognize these additives
as safe for consumers, but at the same time scientists emphasize the need for further
research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Buczkowska
- Zakład Toksykologii i Ochrony Zdrowia w Środowisku Pracy, Katedra Toksykologii i Uzależnień, Wydział Nauk o Zdrowiu w Bytomiu, Śląski Uniwersytet Medyczny w Katowicach
| | - Kamila Paciorek
- Drugie Koło Naukowe przy Zakładzie Toksykologii i Ochrony Zdrowia w Środowisku Pracy, Katedra Toksykologii i Uzależnień
| | - Anna Kapcińska
- Drugie Koło Naukowe przy Zakładzie Toksykologii i Ochrony Zdrowia w Środowisku Pracy, Katedra Toksykologii i Uzależnień
| | - Michał Górski
- Szkoła Doktorska Śląskiego Uniwersytetu Medycznego w Katowicach, Wydział Nauk o Zdrowiu w Bytomiu Śląski Uniwersytet Medyczny
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Kelty JS, Keum C, Brown VJ, Edwards PC, Carratt SA, Van Winkle LS. Comparison of acute respiratory epithelial toxicity for 4-Methylimidazole and naphthalene administered by oral gavage in B6C3F1 mice. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2020; 116:104761. [PMID: 32768664 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2020.104761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 08/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
4-Methylimidazole (4MEI) is a contaminant in food and consumer products. Pulmonary toxicity and carcinogenicity following chronic dietary exposures to 4MEI is a regulatory concern based on previous rodent studies. This study examined acute pulmonary toxicity in B6C3F1 mice from 6 h to 5 days after oral gavage with a single dose of 150 mg/kg 4MEI, a double dose delivered 6 h apart, or vehicle controls. Oral gavage of 150 mg/kg naphthalene, a prototypical Club cell toxicant, was used as a positive control. Intrapulmonary conducting airway cytotoxicity was assessed in fixed-pressure inflated lungs using qualitative histopathology scoring, quantitative morphometric measurement of vacuolated and exfoliating epithelial cells, and immunohistochemistry. 4MEI treatment did not change markers of cytotoxicity including the mass of vacuolated epithelium, the thickness of the epithelium, or the distributions of epithelial proteins: secretoglobin 1A1, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, calcitonin gene-related peptide, and myeloperoxidase. 4MEI and vehicle controls caused slight cytotoxicity with rare vacuolization of the epithelium relative to the severe bronchiolar epithelial cell toxicity found in the naphthalene exposed mice at terminal bronchioles, intrapulmonary airways, or airway bifurcations. In summary, 4MEI caused minimal airway epithelial toxicity without characteristic Club Cell toxicity when compared to naphthalene, a canonical Club Cell toxicant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacklyn S Kelty
- Center for Health and Environment, University of California, Davis, Bldg 3792, Rm 129, 1250 Old Davis Road, Davis, 95616, CA, USA.
| | - Chayoung Keum
- Center for Health and Environment, University of California, Davis, Bldg 3792, Rm 129, 1250 Old Davis Road, Davis, 95616, CA, USA.
| | - Veneese J Brown
- Center for Health and Environment, University of California, Davis, Bldg 3792, Rm 129, 1250 Old Davis Road, Davis, 95616, CA, USA.
| | - Patricia C Edwards
- Center for Health and Environment, University of California, Davis, Bldg 3792, Rm 129, 1250 Old Davis Road, Davis, 95616, CA, USA.
| | - Sarah A Carratt
- Center for Health and Environment, University of California, Davis, Bldg 3792, Rm 129, 1250 Old Davis Road, Davis, 95616, CA, USA.
| | - Laura S Van Winkle
- Center for Health and Environment, University of California, Davis, Bldg 3792, Rm 129, 1250 Old Davis Road, Davis, 95616, CA, USA; Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Cell Biology School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, 95616, CA, USA.
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Analyzing 2-acetyl-4(5)-(1,2,3,4-tetrahydroxybutyl)-imidazole in beverages by dispersive micro-solid phase extraction using polymer cation exchange sorbent followed by ion chromatography and liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Food Chem 2019; 292:260-266. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2018] [Revised: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Liang J, Cao P, Wang X, Gao P, Xu H, Ma N. Dietary intake assessment of caramel colours and their processing by-products 4-methylimidazole and 2-acetyl-4-tetrahydroxy-butylimidazole for the Chinese population. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2019; 36:1009-1019. [PMID: 31100047 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2019.1615137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the study was to assess the dietary intake of caramel colours and their by-products 4-methylimidazole (4-MEI) and 2-acetyl-4-tetrahydroxybutylimidazole (THI) for the Chinese population. Based on the typical and maximum reported use levels of caramel colours in 15 food categories, the dietary intakes of combined and single-class caramel colours of Classes I, III and IV were estimated with the food consumption data from the China National Nutrient and Health Survey. Using the mean values of 4-MEI and THI contents in Class III and Class IV Caramel colour samples, the exposures to 4-MEI and THI from dietary caramel colours were derived. The results showed that the combined and individual average dietary caramel colour intakes for the Chinese population of different age groups were estimated to be 232-60.3 mg kg-1 bw day-1 for combined caramels, 5.9-29.2 mg kg-1 bw day-1 for Class I, 7.7-29.6 mg kg-1 bw day-1 for Class III, 21.2-54.3 mg kg-1 bw day-1 for Class IV, which were far below the group acceptable daily intake (ADI) and respective ADIs. The combined intake of 4-MEI from Class III and IV caramel colours was estimated to be 3.8-5.2 μg kg-1 bw day-1 on average, and 12.9-27.1 μg kg-1 bw day-1 at 95th-97.5th percentile for the general population. The anticipated exposure to THI from Class III caramel colours was estimated to be 0.1-0.3 μg kg-1 bw day-1 on average and 0.5-1.7 μg kg-1 bw day-1 at 95th-97.5th percentile for the general population. The dietary caramel colours intakes and the exposures to 4-MEI and THI from dietary caramel colour for the Chinese population were considered to be of low health concern based on the present toxicological data. Soy sauce, vinegar and compound seasonings were found to be the main contributors to the dietary intake of caramel colours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiang Liang
- a Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment (National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China) , China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment , Beijing , China
| | - Pei Cao
- a Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment (National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China) , China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment , Beijing , China
| | - Xiaodan Wang
- a Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment (National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China) , China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment , Beijing , China
| | - Peng Gao
- a Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment (National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China) , China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment , Beijing , China
| | - Haibin Xu
- a Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment (National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China) , China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment , Beijing , China
| | - Ning Ma
- a Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment (National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China) , China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment , Beijing , China.,b Research Institute of Health Dvelopment Strategies , Fudan University , Shanghai , China
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Fierens T, Van Holderbeke M, Cornelis C, Jacobs G, Sioen I, De Maeyer M, Vinkx C, Vanermen G. Caramel colour and process contaminants in foods and beverages: Part II – Occurrence data and exposure assessment of 2-acetyl-4-(1,2,3,4-tetrahydroxybutyl)imidazole (THI) and 4-methylimidazole (4-MEI) in Belgium. Food Chem 2018; 255:372-379. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2017] [Revised: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Dhungel P, Hrynets Y, Betti M. Sous-Vide Nonenzymatic Browning of Glucosamine at Different Temperatures. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2018; 66:4521-4530. [PMID: 29658276 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b01265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Sous-vide is an increasingly popular method of cooking under controlled conditions of temperature and time inside vacuumed pouches to preserve the nutritional and sensory qualities of food. Sous-vide nonenzymatic browning of glucosamine (GlcN) was investigated at 50, 60, and 70 °C for 12 h. Changes investigated were pH, color, level of browning, and the concentrations of the key Maillard and caramelization reaction products, including α-dicarbonyls and pyrazines. The concentrations of undesired 4-methylimidazole (4-MEI), 2-acetyl-4(5)-tetrahydroxybutyl imidazole (THI), and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) were also determined. Six types of caramels were produced of unique composition with no detectable levels of 4-MEI. GlcN caramels produced under vacuum were more acidic and lighter in color, containing significantly less flavorful diacetyl, but more fructosazine (FR) as compared to nonvacuum caramels. THI concentration was well below the toxicity levels for all studied caramels. Principal component analyses showed that the incubation temperature played a key role in determining the composition of caramels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prinjiya Dhungel
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science , University of Alberta , 410 Agriculture/Forestry Centre , Edmonton , Alberta T6G 2P5 , Canada
| | - Yuliya Hrynets
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science , University of Alberta , 410 Agriculture/Forestry Centre , Edmonton , Alberta T6G 2P5 , Canada
| | - Mirko Betti
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science , University of Alberta , 410 Agriculture/Forestry Centre , Edmonton , Alberta T6G 2P5 , Canada
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Feng TT, Wu JH, Liang X, Du M, Qin L, Xu XB. Isotope dilution determination for the trace level of 4(5)-methylimidazole in beverages using dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction coupled with ESI-HPLC–MS/MS. Food Chem 2018; 245:687-691. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.10.145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Revised: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Mottier P, Mujahid C, Tarres A, Bessaire T, Stadler RH. Process-induced formation of imidazoles in selected foods. Food Chem 2017; 228:381-387. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Revised: 02/03/2017] [Accepted: 02/06/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Lee S, Lee KG. Analysis and risk assessment of 4(5)-methylimidazole in brown colored foods and beverages. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS PART B-SURVEILLANCE 2016; 9:59-65. [DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2015.1127294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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