Quantification of patulin in fruit leathers by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-photodiode array (UPLC-PDA)

Determination of patulin in apple juice by amine-functionalized solid-phase extraction coupled with isotope dilution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

BACKGROUND

Patulin is a mycotoxin that mainly contaminates apple juice, which is a typical high sugar matrix. Many different adsorbents have been utilized to develop a sample pretreatment method to minimize the matrix interference from apple juice.

RESULTS

A simple and reliable extraction method for the determination of patulin in apple juice has been developed. The sample preparation involves a simple one-step cleanup procedure using amine-functionalized polymeric solid-phase extraction cartridges (Retain AX) that effectively remove interferences and facilitate the quantification. Isotope dilution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (ID-LC-MS/MS) was employed to minimize the matrix effect and ensure reliable results. The limit of detection was as low as 0.2 μg kg^-1 , which was satisfactory with regard to current European, US, and Chinese legislation. Matrix-matched linearity (r² = 0.9997) was established in the range of 1-400 μg kg^-1 . Recovery was performed in samples spiked at three levels, and results were between 97.2% and 100.2%.

CONCLUSION

The results indicated that, with one-step cleanup, the matrix effect was negligible and sensitivity was satisfactory. Our work provided a simple and reliable method for patulin detection in apple juice and is also very promising in routine quality control. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Applications of direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry in food analysis: A review

RATIONALE

Direct analysis in real time (DART) combined with mass spectrometry (MS) detection has become one of the most broadly used analytical approaches for the direct molecular characterization of food samples with regard to their chemical quality, safety, origin, and authentication. The major advantages of DART-MS for food analysis include high chemical sensitivity and specificity, high speed and throughput of analysis, simplicity, and the obviation of tedious sample preparation and solvents.

METHODS

The recent applications of DART coupled with different mass analyzers, including quadrupole, ion trap, Orbitrap, and time of flight, are discussed. In addition, sample pretreatment methods that have been coupled with DART-MS are discussed.

RESULTS

We summarize the applications of DART-MS in food science and industry published in the period from 2005 to this date. The applications and analytical characteristics are systematically categorized across the three major types of foods: solid foods, liquid foods, and viscous foods.

CONCLUSIONS

DART-MS has proved its high suitability for the direct, rapid, and high-throughput molecular analysis of very different food samples with minimal or no sample preparation, thus offering a high-speed alternative to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) approaches that are traditionally employed in food analysis.

The characteristics, occurrence, and toxicological effects of patulin

Mycotoxins are the secondary metabolites secreted by different types of fungi to which humans can get exposed mainly via ingestion. Patulin (C₇H₆O₄) is a polyketide lactone produced by various fungal specifies, including Penicillium expansum as the main producer. P. expansum can infect different fruits and vegetables yet it has preference to apples in which they cause blue rot. Therefore, apples and apple-based food products are the main source of Patulin exposure for humans. Patulin was first identified in 1943 under the name of tercinin as a possible antimicrobial agent. Although it is categorized as a non-carcinogen, Patulin has been linked, in the last decades, to neurological, gastrointestinal, and immunological adverse effects, mainly causing liver and kidney damages. In this review, the characteristics of and possible human exposure pathways to Patulin are discussed. Various surveillance and toxicity studies on the levels of Patulin in various food products and effects of Patulin on cells and animal models have been documented as well. Importance of epidemiological studies and a summary of the possible toxicity mechanisms are highlighted with a case study. The commonly used control methods as described in the literature are also discussed to guide future researchers to focus on mitigating mycotoxins contamination in the food industry.

Detecting Biothreat Agents: From Current Diagnostics to Developing Sensor Technologies

Although a fundamental understanding of the pathogenicity of most biothreat agents has been elucidated and available treatments have increased substantially over the past decades, they still represent a significant public health threat in this age of (bio)terrorism, indiscriminate warfare, pollution, climate change, unchecked population growth, and globalization. The key step to almost all prevention, protection, prophylaxis, post-exposure treatment, and mitigation of any bioagent is early detection. Here, we review available methods for detecting bioagents including pathogenic bacteria and viruses along with their toxins. An introduction placing this subject in the historical context of previous naturally occurring outbreaks and efforts to weaponize selected agents is first provided along with definitions and relevant considerations. An overview of the detection technologies that find use in this endeavor along with how they provide data or transduce signal within a sensing configuration follows. Current "gold" standards for biothreat detection/diagnostics along with a listing of relevant FDA approved in vitro diagnostic devices is then discussed to provide an overview of the current state of the art. Given the 2014 outbreak of Ebola virus in Western Africa and the recent 2016 spread of Zika virus in the Americas, discussion of what constitutes a public health emergency and how new in vitro diagnostic devices are authorized for emergency use in the U.S. are also included. The majority of the Review is then subdivided around the sensing of bacterial, viral, and toxin biothreats with each including an overview of the major agents in that class, a detailed cross-section of different sensing methods in development based on assay format or analytical technique, and some discussion of related microfluidic lab-on-a-chip/point-of-care devices. Finally, an outlook is given on how this field will develop from the perspective of the biosensing technology itself and the new emerging threats they may face.

Determination of trace patulin in apple-based food matrices

Patulin is a toxic metabolite of a number of fungi; its toxicity is serious and its contamination in food is a worldwide problem, especially in apple-based food. Effective control of patulin contamination strongly depends on reliable analytical methods. In this review, various analytical methods, especially those that have appeared in the last ten years, are summarized, including the highly reproducible chromatography and mass-spectrometry-based methods, highly selective sensor-based methods and indirect quantitative PCR methods. This review also summarizes the promising features of novel materials in sample preparation for patulin determination.

Developments in mycotoxin analysis: an update for 2014-2015

This review summarises developments in the determination of mycotoxins over a period between mid-2014 and mid-2015. In tradition with previous articles of this series, analytical methods to determine aflatoxins, Alternaria toxins, ergot alkaloids, fumonisins, ochratoxins, patulin, trichothecenes and zearalenone are covered in individual sections. Advances in proper sampling strategies are discussed in a dedicated section, as are new methods used to analyse botanicals and spices and newly developed LC-MS based multi-mycotoxin methods. The critical review aims to briefly discuss the most important developments and trends in mycotoxin determination as well as to address shortcomings of current methodologies.