Identification of print-related contaminants in food packaging

Organophosphate Esters in Building Materials from China: Levels, Sources, Emissions, and Preliminary Assessment of Human Exposure

Source characteristics and health risks of indoor organophosphate esters (OPEs) are limited by the lack of knowledge on emission processes. This study attempted to integrate the contents and emissions of OPEs from indoor building materials to assess human health effects. Thirteen OPEs were investigated in 80 pieces of six categories of building materials. OPEs are ubiquitous in the building materials and ∑13OPE contents varied significantly (p < 0.05) from 72.8 ng/g (seam agent) to 109,900 ng/g (wallpaper). Emission characteristics of OPEs from the building materials were examined based on a microchamber method. Depending on the sample category, the observed initial area-specific emission rates of ∑13OPEs varied from 154 ng/m2/h (carpet) to 2760 ng/m2/h (wooden floorboard). Moreover, the emission rate model was developed to predict the release levels of individual OPEs, quantify source contributions, and assess associated exposure risks. Source apportionments of indoor OPEs exhibited heterogeneities in multiple environmental media. The joint OPE contribution of wallpaper and wooden floorboard to indoor dust was up to 94.8%, while latex paint and wooden floorboard were the main OPE contributors to indoor air (54.2%) and surface (76.1%), respectively. Risk assessment showed that the carcinogenic risks of tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (3.35 × 10-7) were close to the acceptable level (1 × 10-6) and deserved special attention.

Occurrence, Fate, Human Exposure, and Toxicity of Commercial Photoinitiators

Photoinitiators (PIs) are a family of anthropogenic chemicals used in polymerization systems that generate active substances to initiate polymerization reactions under certain radiations. Although polymerization is considered a green method, its wide application in various commercial products, such as UV-curable inks, paints, and varnishes, has led to ubiquitous environmental issues caused by PIs. In this study, we present an overview of the current knowledge on the environmental occurrence, human exposure, and toxicity of PIs and provide suggestions for future research based on numerous available studies. The residual concentrations of PIs in commercial products, such as food packaging materials, are at microgram per gram levels. The migration of PIs from food packaging materials to foodstuffs has been confirmed by more than 100 reports of food contamination caused by PIs. Furthermore, more than 20 PIs have been detected in water, sediment, sewage sludge, and indoor dust collected from Asia, the United States, and Europe. Human internal exposure was also confirmed by the detection of PIs in serum. In addition, PIs were present in human breast milk, indicating that breastfeeding is an exposure pathway for infants. Among the most available studies, benzophenone is the dominant congener detected in the environment and humans. Toxicity studies of PIs reveal multiple toxic end points, such as carcinogenicity and endocrine-disrupting effects. Future investigations should focus on synergistic/antagonistic toxicity effects caused by PIs coexposure and metabolism/transformation pathways of newly identified PIs. Furthermore, future research should aim to develop "greener" PIs with high efficiency, low migration, and low toxicity.

Comparative Analysis of Chemical Composition of Zanthoxylum myriacanthum Branches and Leaves by GC-MS and UPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS, and Evaluation of Their Antioxidant Activities

Zanthoxylum myriacanthum Wall. ex Hook. f., a plant belonging to the Rutaceae family and the Zanthoxylum genus, is extensively utilized for its medicinal properties and as a culinary seasoning in China and Southeast Asian countries. However, the chemical composition and biological activities of Z. myriacanthum branches and leaves remain insufficiently explored. In this study, the volatile and non-volatile components of Z. myriacanthum branches and leaves were analyzed using GC-MS and UPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS techniques. A total of 78 volatile compounds and 66 non-volatile compounds were identified. The volatile compounds were predominantly terpenoids and aliphatic compounds, while the non-volatile compounds were primarily flavonoids and alkaloids. The branches contained 52 volatile compounds and 33 non-volatile compounds, whereas the leaves contained 48 volatile compounds and 40 non-volatile compounds. The antioxidant activities of the methanol extracts from Z. myriacanthum branches and leaves were evaluated using ABTS and DPPH free-radical-scavenging assays, both of which demonstrated certain antioxidant activity. The methanol extract of leaves demonstrated significantly higher antioxidant activity compared to that of the branches, possibly due to the higher presence of flavonoids and phenols in the leaves, with IC50 values of 7.12 ± 0.257 μg/mL and 1.22 × 102 ± 5.01 μg/mL for ABTS and DPPH, respectively. These findings enhance our understanding of the chemical composition and antioxidant potential of Z. myriacanthum. The plant holds promise as a natural source of antioxidants for applications in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and functional foods. Further research can explore its broader biological activities and potential applications.

Supramolecular solvent extraction and ambient mass spectrometry for the determination of organic contaminants in food packaging material

A rapid method based on a fast sample treatment with supramolecular solvents (SUPRASs) and ambient mass spectrometry (AMS) analysis was developed for the screening and quantification of organic contaminants in food packaging materials (FCMs). The suitability of SUPRASs made up of medium chain alcohols in ethanol:water mixtures was investigated, given their low toxicity, proven capacity for multi-residue analysis (since they provide a wide variety of interactions and multiple binding sites) and restricted access properties for simultaneous sample extraction and clean-up. Two families of emerging organic pollutants, bisphenols and organophosphate flame retardants, were targeted as representative compounds. The methodology was applied to 40 FCMs. Target compounds were quantitated using ASAP (atmospheric solids analysis probe)-low resolution MS and a broad-spectrum screening of contaminants was performed through spectral library search using direct injection probe (DIP) and high resolution MS (HRMS). The results showed the ubiquity of bisphenols and of some flame retardants, as well as the presence of other additives and unknown compounds in about half of the analyzed samples, which highlight the complex composition of FCMs and the possible associated health risks.

Chemical Characterization and Non-targeted Analysis of Medical Device Extracts: A Review of Current Approaches, Gaps, and Emerging Practices

The developers of medical devices evaluate the biocompatibility of their device prior to FDA's review and subsequent introduction to the market. Chemical characterization, described in ISO 10993-18:2020, can generate information for toxicological risk assessment and is an alternative approach for addressing some biocompatibility end points (e.g., systemic toxicity, genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, reproductive/developmental toxicity) that can reduce the time and cost of testing and the need for animal testing. Additionally, chemical characterization can be used to determine whether modifications to the materials and manufacturing processes alter the chemistry of a patient-contacting device to an extent that could impact device safety. Extractables testing is one approach to chemical characterization that employs combinations of non-targeted analysis, non-targeted screening, and/or targeted analysis to establish the identities and quantities of the various chemical constituents that can be released from a device. Due to the difficulty in obtaining a priori information on all the constituents in finished devices, information generation strategies in the form of analytical chemistry testing are often used. Identified and quantified extractables are then assessed using toxicological risk assessment approaches to determine if reported quantities are sufficiently low to overcome the need for further chemical analysis, biological evaluation of select end points, or risk control. For extractables studies to be useful as a screening tool, comprehensive and reliable non-targeted methods are needed. Although non-targeted methods have been adopted by many laboratories, they are laboratory-specific and require expensive analytical instruments and advanced technical expertise to perform. In this Perspective, we describe the elements of extractables studies and provide an overview of the current practices, identified gaps, and emerging practices that may be adopted on a wider scale in the future. This Perspective is outlined according to the steps of an extractables study: information gathering, extraction, extract sample processing, system selection, qualification, quantification, and identification.

Applications of direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry in food analysis: A review

RATIONALE

Direct analysis in real time (DART) combined with mass spectrometry (MS) detection has become one of the most broadly used analytical approaches for the direct molecular characterization of food samples with regard to their chemical quality, safety, origin, and authentication. The major advantages of DART-MS for food analysis include high chemical sensitivity and specificity, high speed and throughput of analysis, simplicity, and the obviation of tedious sample preparation and solvents.

METHODS

The recent applications of DART coupled with different mass analyzers, including quadrupole, ion trap, Orbitrap, and time of flight, are discussed. In addition, sample pretreatment methods that have been coupled with DART-MS are discussed.

RESULTS

We summarize the applications of DART-MS in food science and industry published in the period from 2005 to this date. The applications and analytical characteristics are systematically categorized across the three major types of foods: solid foods, liquid foods, and viscous foods.

CONCLUSIONS

DART-MS has proved its high suitability for the direct, rapid, and high-throughput molecular analysis of very different food samples with minimal or no sample preparation, thus offering a high-speed alternative to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) approaches that are traditionally employed in food analysis.

Application of chromatographic analysis for detecting components from polymeric can coatings and further determination in beverage samples

Major type of internal can coating used for food and beverages is made from epoxy resins, which contain among their components bisphenol A (BPA) or bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (BADGE). These components can be released and contaminate the food or beverage. There is no specific European legislation for coatings, but there is legislation on specific substances setting migration limits. Many investigations have paid attention to BPA due to its classification as endocrine disruptor, however, few studies are available concerning to other bisphenol analogues that have been used in the manufacture of these resins. To evaluate the presence of this family of compounds, ten cans of beverages were taken as study samples. Firstly, the type of coating was verified using an attenuated total reflectance-FTIR spectrometer to check the type of coating presents in most of the samples examined. A screening method was also performed to investigate potential volatiles from polymeric can coatings of beverages using Purge and Trap (P&T) technique coupled to gas chromatography with mass spectrometry detection (GC-MS). Moreover, a selective analytical method based on high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) for the simultaneous identification and quantification of thirteen compounds including bisphenol analogues (BPA, BPB, BPC, BPE, BPF, BPG) and BADGEs (BADGE, BADGE.H₂O, BADGE.2H₂O, BADGE.HCl, BADGE.2HCl, BADGE.H2O.HCl, cyclo-di-BADGE) in the polymeric can coatings and in the beverage samples was applied. In addition, a liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was optimized for confirmation purposes. The method showed an adequate linearity (R² >0.9994) and low detection levels down to 5 µg/L. Cyclo-di-BADGE was detected in all extracts of polymeric coatings. The concentrations ranged from 0.004 to 0.60 mg/dm². No detectable amounts of bisphenol related compounds were found in any of the beverage samples at levels that may pose a risk to human health, suggesting a low intake of bisphenols from beverages.

Dietary Exposure Estimation to Chemicals Transferred from Milk and Dairy Products Packaging Materials in Spanish Child and Adolescent Population

Packaging materials are subject to risk assessment since they can transfer their components to the food, and they may constitute a risk for the consumers' health. Therefore, estimating the exposure to chemicals migrating from packaging is required. In this study, a novel approach based on a total diet study (TDS)-like investigation to evaluate the exposure to chemicals transferred from the packaging was presented. The proposed methodology involved a non-targeted gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method to identify potential migrants and the determination of the migrants in composite food samples. The method was applied to evaluate the dietary exposure to chemicals from food packaging materials used for milk and dairy products in the Spanish child and adolescent populations. Several migrants identified in packaging materials were selected to determine their concentration in composite food samples. These chemicals included diethyl phthalate (DEP), diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), bis(2ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), benzophenone (BP), 1,3-diphenylpropane (1,3-DPP), and bis(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHT). The method exhibited a good sensitivity (limit of detection, LOD ≤ 0.05 µg/g) and a satisfactory recovery (78.4-124%). Finally, the exposure was estimated using the Spanish national dietary survey ENALIA. Phthalates DBP and DEHP showed the highest mean exposure, ranging from 2.42 (10-17 years)-4.40 (12-35 months) and 1.35 (10-17 years)-4.07 (12-35 months) µg/kg bw/day for DBP and DEHP, respectively.

Potential emerging chemical risks in the food chain associated with substances registered under REACH

A screening procedure for the identification of potential emerging chemical risks in the food and feed chain developed in a previous EFSA-sponsored pilot study was applied to 15021 substances registered under the REACH Regulation at the time of evaluation. Eligible substances were selected from this dataset by excluding (a) intermediates handled under strictly controlled conditions, (b) substances lacking crucial input data and (c) compounds considered to be outside the applicability domain of the models used. Selection of eligible substances resulted in a considerable reduction to 2336 substances. These substances were assessed and scored for environmental release (tonnage and use information from REACH registration dossiers), biodegradation (predictions from BIOWIN models 3, 5 and 6 evaluated in a battery approach), bioaccumulation in food/feed (ACC-HUMANsteady modelling) and chronic human health hazards (classification according to the CLP Regulation for carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, reproductive toxicity and repeated dose toxicity as well as IARC classification for carcinogenicity). Prioritisation based on the scores assigned and additional data curation steps identified 212 substances that are considered potential emerging risks in the food chain. Overall, 53% of these substances were prioritised due to chronic hazards identified in REACH registrations dossiers only (i.e. hazards not identified in classifications from other sources). Bioaccumulation in food and feed predicted on the basis of ACC-HUMANsteady modelling identified many substances that are not considered bioaccumulative in aquatic or terrestrial organisms based on screening criteria of the relevant ECHA guidance documents. Furthermore, 52% of the priority substances have not yet been assessed for their presence in food/feed by EU regulatory agencies. This finding and illustrative examples suggest that the screening procedure identified substances that have the potential to be emerging chemical risks in the food chain. Future research should investigate whether they actually represent emerging chemical risks as defined in EFSA's mandate.

GC-MS Screening for the Identification of Potential Migrants Present in Polymeric Coatings of Food Cans

The coatings used in cans can release complex chemical mixtures into foodstuffs. Therefore, it is important to develop analytical methods for the identification of these potential migrant compounds in packaged food to guarantee the compliance with European food packaging legislation and ensure consumer safety. In the present work, the type of coating in a total of twelve cans collected in Santiago de Compostela (Spain) were evaluated using an ATR (attenuated total reflectance)-FTIR spectrometer. These samples were analysed after extraction with acetonitrile in order to identify potential migrants through a screening method by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). A total of forty-seven volatile and semi-volatile compounds were identified in these samples, including plasticizers, photoinitiators, antioxidants, lubricants, etc. Then, in a second step, a targeted analysis was carried out for the simultaneous determination of 13 compounds, including bisphenols (BPA, BPB, BPC, BPE, BPF, BPG) and BADGEs (BADGE, BADGE.H₂O, BADGE.2H₂O, BADGE.HCl, BADGE.2HCl, BADGE.H₂O.HCl, cyclo-di-BADGE) by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) with atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation (APCI) source. Among all the bisphenols analysed, only the bisphenol A was detected in four samples; while cyclo-di-BADGE was the predominant compound detected in all the samples analysed.

Identification and Migration Studies of Photolytic Decomposition Products of UV-Photoinitiators in Food Packaging

UV-curable inks, coatings, and adhesives are being increasingly used in food packaging systems. When exposed to UV energy, UV-photoinitiators (PI's) present in the formulations produce free radicals which catalyze polymerization of monomers and pre-polymers into resins. In addition to photopolymerization, other free radical reactions occur in these systems resulting in the formation of chemically varied photolytic decomposition products, many of which are low molecular weight chemical species with high migration potential. This research conducted model experiments in which 24 commonly used PI's were exposed to UV-energy at the typical upper limit of commercial UV-printing press conditions. UV-irradiated PI's were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and electrospray-mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) in order to identify photolytic decomposition products. Subsequently, migration studies of 258 UV-cure food packaging samples were conducted using GC-MS; PI's and photolytic decomposition products were found in nearly all samples analyzed. One hundred-thirteen photolytic decomposition products were identified. Eighteen intact PI's and 21 photolytic decomposition products were observed as migrants from the 258 samples analyzed, and these were evaluated for frequency of occurrence and migratory concentration range. The most commonly observed PI's were 2-hydroxy-2-methylpropiophenone and benzophenone. The most commonly observed photolytic decomposition products were 2,4,6-trimethylbenzaldehyde and 1-phenyl-2-butanone. This compilation of PI photolytic decomposition data and associated migration data will aid industry in identifying and tracing non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) in food packaging materials.

Easy and Inexpensive Method for Multiclass Analysis of 41 Food Contact Related Contaminants in Fatty Food by Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Food contact materials (FCMs) may release their chemical components into food and thus raise safety concerns. This paper attempted to study the presence of four major groups of FCM-related endocrine disruptors in fatty food: dialkyl phthalates, bisphenols, printing ink photoinitiators, and polyfluoroalkyl substances. All 41 target compounds were analyzed simultaneously by means of liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. The sample preparation was significantly streamlined to reduce analysis costs by employing acetonitrile extraction, extract modification by water, and refrigeration at 5 °C. The new method was validated and applied to 60 real samples, including edible oils, butter, and chocolate, where 16 target compounds were measured at levels ≤13000 ng/g. The study also described the blank level increase and sensitivity loss caused by impurities present in the HPLC methanol solvent.

Estimates of dietary exposure of Spanish population to packaging contaminants from cereal based foods contained in plastic materials

Food packaging may be a potential source of contamination, through the migration of chemicals from the packaging into the food, thus food consumption is an important route of human exposure to packaging contaminants. In the present study an approach to estimate the exposure to different chemicals transferred from food packaging was designed. As a first step a GC-MS screening was conducted to identify potential contaminants in the materials. Secondly, different chemicals previously identified in the packaging materials were selected for exposure assessment. The proposed methodology was applied to cereal based foods packed with plastic packaging. A variety of chemicals including e.g. acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC), bis (2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA) and diethyl phthalate (DEP) among others were identified and analyzed in the foodstuffs. For this purpose a LC-MS/MS method was developed. The selected foodstuffs were pooled into three groups according to the population age (12-35 months, 3-9 years and 10-17 years) and based on the Spanish consumption data (Enalia). In general, ATBC mean exposure was higher than that of phthalates and DEHA for the three groups considered, with mean dietary exposure values ranging from 1.01 μg/kg bw/day (pool 12-35 months) to 2.01 μg/kg bw/day (pool 3-9 years).

GC-MS Screening Analysis for the Identification of Potential Migrants in Plastic and Paper-Based Candy Wrappers

Food packaging materials may be a potential source of contamination through the migration of components from the material into foodstuffs. Potential migrants can be known substances such as additives (e.g., plasticizers, stabilizers, antioxidants, etc.), monomers, and so on. However, they can also be unknown substances, which could be non-intentionally added substances (NIAS). In the present study, non-targeted analysis using mass spectrometry coupled to gas chromatography (GC-MS) for the identification of migrants in plastic and paper-based candy wrappers was performed. Samples were analyzed after extraction with acetonitrile. Numerous compounds including N-alkanes, phthalates, acetyl tributyl citrate, tributyl aconitate, bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate, butylated hydroxytoluene, etc. were identified. Many of the compounds detected in plastic samples are not included in the positive list of the authorized substances. One non-intentionally added substance, 7,9-Di-tert-butyl-1-oxaspiro(4,5)deca-6-9-diene-2,8-dione, which has been reported as a degradation product of the antioxidant Irganox 1010, was found in several samples of both plastic and paper packaging. The proposed method was shown to be a useful approach for the identification of potential migrants in packaging samples. The toxicity of the compounds identified was estimated according to Cramer rules. Then, a second targeted analysis was also conducted in order to identify photoinitiators; among the analyzed compounds, only 2-hydroxybenzophenone was found in five samples.

Identification of intentionally and non-intentionally added substances in plastic packaging materials and their migration into food products

Plastic materials are widely used in food packaging applications; however, there is increased concern because of the possible release of undesirable components into foodstuffs. Migration of plastic constituents not only has the potential to affect product quality but also constitutes a risk to consumer health. In order to check the safety of food contact materials, analytical methodologies to identify potential migrants are required. In the first part of this work, a GC/MS screening method was developed for the identification of components from plastic packaging materials including intentionally and "non-intentionally added substances" (NIAS) as potential migrants. In the second part of this study, the presence of seven compounds (bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC), benzophenone (BP)) previously identified in packaging materials were investigated in food products (corn and potatoes snacks, cookies, and cakes). For this purpose, a suitable extraction method was developed and quantification was performed using GC-MS. The developed method was validated in terms of linearity, recovery, repeatability, and limits of detection and quantification. The spiked recoveries varied between 82.7 and 116.1%, and relative standard deviation (RSD) was in the range of 2.22-15.9%. The plasticizer ATBC was the most detected compound (94% samples), followed by DEP (65%), DEHP (47%), BP (44%), DBP (35%), DIBP (21%), and BHT (12%). Regarding phthalates, DEP and DEHP were the most frequently detected compounds in concentrations up to 1.44 μg g^-1. In some samples, only DBP exceeded the European SML of 0.3 mg kg^-1 established in Regulation 10/2011. Graphical abstract Chemical migration from plastic packaging into food.