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Liu S, Wang Y, Liu Z, Yang Z, Chen L, Chen B. Migration of Melamine and Its Derivatives from Melamine/Bamboo/Wheat Straw-Made Tableware Purchased from Internet Markets or Retail Shops in China. TOXICS 2024; 12:143. [PMID: 38393238 PMCID: PMC10892781 DOI: 10.3390/toxics12020143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2023] [Revised: 02/04/2024] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The ecofriendly and sustainable concept of bamboo- and wheat straw-made tableware has gained attention in recent years. However, it is necessary to note that these kinds of tableware are composed of melamine (MEL)-formaldehyde resin with the addition of bamboo fibers or wheat straw. This study aims to explore the potential migration of MEL and its derivatives from the tableware and conduct a risk assessment. METHODS The study involved 46 bowls or cups purchased from Internet markets or retail shops in China, whose raw materials included MEL, bamboo, and wheat straw. There were four pieces of glass- or ceramic-made tableware used as the control group. Migration testing was performed according to the test conditions selected from the European Union Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Materials. Considering the realistic worst-case scenario, we measured the concentrations of MEL and its derivatives in food simulants using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and estimated the exposure risks for adults and 1-year-old infants. RESULTS MEL and its derivatives could migrate from MEL-, bamboo-, and wheat straw-made tableware with varying concentrations. The total migration was ranked as follows: bamboo-made tableware > MEL-made tableware > wheat straw-made tableware > glass- or ceramic-made tableware (p < 0.001). The primary contributor to the total concentration for MEL- and bamboo-made tableware was MEL, whereas cyanuric acid (CYA) was the main contributor for wheat straw-made tableware. Based on the total concentration of MEL and its derivatives and the strictest TDI value, the proportions of the calculated hazard quotient ≥1 for MEL-, bamboo-, and wheat straw-made tableware in adults were 53.50%, 92.30%, and 1.90%; and the proportions in 1-year-old infants increased to 86.00%, 100.00%, and 7.40%. CONCLUSION The utilization of MEL-, bamboo-, and wheat straw-made tableware could be regarded as a significant source of human exposure to MEL and its derivatives. It is advisable for both adults and infants to refrain from using tableware manufactured with MEL and bamboo fiber, as it may increase the susceptibility to MEL-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaojie Liu
- School of Public Health, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou 350122, China;
- School of Public Health, Key Laboratory of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; (Y.W.); (Z.L.)
- Department of Clinical Nutrition, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361003, China;
| | - Yifei Wang
- School of Public Health, Key Laboratory of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; (Y.W.); (Z.L.)
| | - Zhanren Liu
- School of Public Health, Key Laboratory of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; (Y.W.); (Z.L.)
| | - Zhiping Yang
- Department of Clinical Nutrition, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361003, China;
| | - Liang Chen
- College of Biological & Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo 315100, China
| | - Bo Chen
- School of Public Health, Key Laboratory of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; (Y.W.); (Z.L.)
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Liu S, Dong R, Wang Y, Yang Z, He G, Chen B. Twenty-four-hour temporal trend of melamine and its derivatives in urine in association with meal consumption: a panel study in Shanghai, China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:120225-120235. [PMID: 37936050 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-30740-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/09/2023]
Abstract
Timing of sampling is important for the exposure assessment of melamine (MEL) and its derivatives. This study aimed to investigate whether MEL and its derivatives in spot urine can effectively represent individual exposure levels throughout the day in adults and to explore their temporal trend before and after meal consumption for helping understand the timing of sampling and for assessing the potential exposure risk. This is a 2-day panel study with 43 college students being enrolled to provide urine specimens in 24 h (from the morning of the first day to the second day) and to answer a questionnaire on demographic characteristics, physical measurements, and time of having meal. Spearman correlation and Wilcoxon rank-sum test were used to examine the associations of the urinary concentrations of MEL and its derivatives in different sampled times and compare the concentrations' differences before and after meal consumption. Urinary concentrations of MEL and its derivatives (ammeline (AMN), ammelide (AMD), and cyanuric acid (CYA)) in the first-morning urine at the second day and randomly selected spot urine were positively associated with the average concentrations in the previous 24-h urine (all P ≤ 0.002). Urinary MEL concentration increased rapidly after meal consumption, reaching a maximum at approximately 3 h and then decreased gradually towards baseline (P = 0.006). Two subjects (4.65%) had a cumulative daily intake exceeding the severest tolerable daily intake. MEL and its three derivatives in spot urine can effectively represent the average concentrations in the previous 24-h urine in adults. Meal consumption is still a notable source of exposure to MEL for humans. These findings are important for choosing a better sampling strategy of performing exposure assessment. Meanwhile, the acute elevation in urinary MEL concentration following meal consumption may pose a potential health risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaojie Liu
- Department of Clinical Nutrition, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361003, China
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Ruihua Dong
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Yifei Wang
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Zhiping Yang
- Department of Clinical Nutrition, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361003, China
| | - Gengsheng He
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Bo Chen
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
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Kim HS, Lee KY, Jung JS, Sin HS, Lee HG, Jang DY, Lee SH, Lim KM, Choi D. Comparison of migration and cumulative risk assessment of antioxidants, antioxidant degradation products, and other non-intentionally added substances from plastic food contact materials. Food Packag Shelf Life 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fpsl.2023.101037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Hee YY, Weston K, Suratman S. The effect of storage conditions and washing on microplastic release from food and drink containers. Food Packag Shelf Life 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fpsl.2022.100826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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A vision on the ‘foodture’ role of dietary exposure sciences in the interplay between food safety and nutrition. Trends Food Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2022.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Migration of monomers, plastic additives, and non-intentionally added substances from food utensils made of melamine–formaldehyde resin following ultraviolet sterilization. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.107981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Abstract
The widespread use of plastic packaging for storing, transporting, and conveniently preparing or serving foodstuffs is significantly contributing to the global plastic pollution crisis. This has led to many efforts directed toward amending plastic packaging’s end of life, such as recycling, or alternative material approaches, like increasingly using paper for food packaging. But these approaches often neglect the critical issue of chemical migration: When contacting foodstuffs, chemicals that are present in packaging transfer into food and thus unwittingly become part of the human diet. Hazardous chemicals, such as endocrine disrupters, carcinogens, or substances that bioaccumulate, are collectively referred to as “chemicals of concern.” They can transfer from plastic packaging into food, together with other unknown or toxicologically uncharacterized chemicals. This chemical transfer is scientifically undisputed and makes plastic packaging a known, and avoidable, source of human exposure to synthetic, hazardous, and untested chemicals. Here, I discuss this issue and highlight aspects in need of improvement, namely the way that chemicals present in food packaging are assessed for toxicity. Further, I provide an outlook on how chemical contamination from food packaging could be addressed in the future. Robust innovations must attempt systemic change and tackle the issue of plastic pollution and chemical migration in a way that integrates all existing knowledge. The widespread use of plastic packaging for storing, transporting, and conveniently preparing or serving foodstuffs is significantly contributing to the global plastic pollution crisis. This Essay exhorts us to change the conversation about plastic packaging and address the chemicals that migrate into food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Muncke
- Food Packaging Forum Foundation, Zurich, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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Butterfield JL, Keyser SP, Dikshit KV, Kwon H, Koster MI, Bruns CJ. Solar Freckles: Long-Term Photochromic Tattoos for Intradermal Ultraviolet Radiometry. ACS NANO 2020; 14:13619-13628. [PMID: 32961057 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c05723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
While tattooable nanotechnology for in-skin sensing and communication has been a popular concept in science fiction since the 1990s, the first tattooable intradermal nanosensors have only emerged in the past few years, and none have been demonstrated in human skin. We developed a photochromic tattoo that serves as an intradermal ultraviolet (UV) radiometer that provides naked-eye feedback about UV exposure in real time. These small tattoos, or "solar freckles", comprise dermally implanted colorimetric UV sensors in the form of nanoencapsulated leuco dyes that become more blue in color with increasing UV irradiance. We demonstrate the tattoos' functionality for both quantitative and naked-eye UV sensing in porcine skin ex vivo, as well as in human skin in vivo. Solar freckles offer an alternative and complementary approach to self-monitoring UV exposure for the sake of skin cancer prevention. Activated solar freckles provide a visual reminder to protect the skin, and their color disappears rapidly upon removal of UV exposure or application of topical sunscreen. The sensors are implanted in a minimally invasive procedure that lasts only a few seconds, yet remain functional for months to years. These semipermanent tattoos provide an early proof-of-concept for long-term intradermal sensing nanomaterials that provide users with biomedically relevant information in the form of an observable color change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse L Butterfield
- Paul M. Rady Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Sean P Keyser
- Paul M. Rady Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Karan V Dikshit
- Materials Science & Engineering Program, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Hyejin Kwon
- Paul M. Rady Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Maranke I Koster
- Department of Dermatology, University of Colorado-Denver, Anschutz Medical Campus, Denver, Colorado 80217, United States
| | - Carson J Bruns
- Paul M. Rady Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
- ATLAS Institute, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
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Abd-Elhakim YM, Mohamed WAM, El Bohi KM, Ali HA, Mahmoud FA, Saber TM. Prevention of melamine-induced hepatorenal impairment by an ethanolic extract of Moringa oleifera: Changes in KIM-1, TIMP-1, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and inflammation-related genes. Gene 2020; 764:145083. [PMID: 32860902 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2020.145083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Revised: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS Melamine (ML) is a common food adulterant and contaminant. Moringa oleifera is a well-known medicinal plant with many beneficial biological properties. This study investigated the possible prophylactic and therapeutic activity of an ethanolic extract of M. oleifera (MEE) against ML-induced hepatorenal damage. METHOD Fifty male Sprague Dawley rats were orally administered distilled water, MEE (800 mg/kg bw), ML (700 mg/kg bw), MEE/ML (prophylactically) or MEE+ML (therapeutically). Hepatic aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and alkaline phosphate (ALP) in serum were measured. Serum total bilirubin, direct bilirubin, indirect bilirubin, protein, albumin, and globulin contents were also assayed, and urea and creatinine levels were determined. Moreover, antioxidant enzyme activity of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and catalase (CAT) in serum levels were quantified. Complementary histological and histochemical evaluation of renal and hepatic tissues was conducted, and expression of oxidative stress (GPx and CAT) and apoptosis-related genes, p53 and Bcl-2, in hepatic tissue were assessed. In parallel, transcriptional expression of inflammation and renal injury-related genes, including kidney injury molecule 1 (KIM-1), metallopeptidase inhibitor 1 (TIMP1), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) in the kidney tissue were determined. RESULTS ML caused significant increases in serum levels of ALT, AST, ALP, total bilirubin, direct bilirubin, indirect bilirubin, urea, and creatinine. Further, ML treated rats showed significant reductions in serum levels of protein, albumin, globulin, GPx, and CAT. Distinct histopathological damage and disturbances in glycogen and DNA content in hepatic and renal tissues of ML treated rats were observed. KIM-1, TIMP-1, and TNF-α gene expression was significantly upregulated in kidney tissue. Also, GPx, CAT, and Bcl-2 genes were significantly downregulated, and p53 was significantly upregulated in liver tissue after ML treatment. MEE significantly counteracted the ML-induced hepatorenal damage primarily for co-exposed rats. CONCLUSION MEE could be an effective therapeutic supplement for treatment of ML-induced hepato-renal damage, probably via modulating oxidative stress, apoptosis, and inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasmina M Abd-Elhakim
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt.
| | - Wafaa A M Mohamed
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Khlood M El Bohi
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Haytham A Ali
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt; Department of Biochemistry, Collage of Science, University of Jeddah, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Fagr A Mahmoud
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Egypt
| | - Taghred M Saber
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
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Release of Melamine and Formaldehyde from Melamine-Formaldehyde Plastic Kitchenware. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25163629. [PMID: 32784987 PMCID: PMC7463570 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25163629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The release of melamine and formaldehyde from kitchenware made of melamine resins is still a matter of great concern. To investigate the migration and release behavior of the monomers from melamine-based food contact materials into food simulants and food stuffs, cooking spoons were tested under so-called hot plate conditions at 100 °C. Release conditions using the real hot plate conditions with 3% acetic acid were compared with conditions in a conventional migration oven and with a release to deionized water. Furthermore, the kinetics of the release were studied using Arrhenius plots giving an activation energy for the release of melamine of 120 kJ/mol. Finally, a correlation between quality of the resins, specifically the kind of bridges between the monomers, and the release of melamine, was confirmed by CP/MAS 13C-NMR measurements of the melamine kitchenware. Obviously, the ratio of methylene bridges and dimethylene ether bridges connecting the melamine monomers during the curing process can be directly correlated with the amount of the monomers released into food.
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Arce M, Sanllorente S, Ortiz M. Kinetic models of migration of melamine and formaldehyde from melamine kitchenware with data of liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1599:115-124. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Revised: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Li M, Fan Y, Liu Z, Xie Y, Guo Y, Cheng Y, Qian H, Yao W. Tracing the melamine migration from three-piece tin cans into food simulants during coating process. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2018.11.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Chu CY, Fung KP, Wang CC. Effects of low-dose melamine exposure during pregnancy on maternal and fetal kidneys in rats. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2018; 33:370-380. [PMID: 29265596 DOI: 10.1002/tox.22525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2017] [Revised: 11/29/2017] [Accepted: 12/02/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Despite the previous reports on melamine contamination in high concentrations some years ago, there were not many studies on low-level exposure in daily life, particularly in pregnancy. We investigated the effect of low-dose melamine on the kidneys of the pregnant rats and their developing embryos/fetuses during various gestational stages namely implantation, gastrulation, organogenesis, maturation and whole pregnancy. Our results showed that the repeated low level of melamine (12.5, 25, and 50 mg/kg bw/d) during pregnancy did not cause obstruction of renal tubules although more precipitating crystals were found in the early gestational periods. Simple hyperplasia in the maternal tubules and pelvic epithelium were more prominent after exposed to melamine during the whole gestational period. Neonatal kidneys significantly suffered more from congestion in glomeruli and interstitium, dilated tubules and interstitial edema after melamine administration to the mother in the late and the whole gestational periods. A trend of advance of glomerular development in fetuses was also observed. We conclude that in utero exposure of low-level melamine could post a risk on the kidneys of the pregnant mother as well as the developing fetuses, which may further increase the possibility of other health problems later in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ching Yan Chu
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Kwok Pui Fung
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Chi Chiu Wang
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
- Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
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Abd-Elhakim YM, El Bohi KM, Hassan SK, El Sayed S, Abd-Elmotal SM. Palliative effects of Moringa olifera ethanolic extract on hemato-immunologic impacts of melamine in rats. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 114:1-10. [PMID: 29438774 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Revised: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Melamine (MEL) is a widespread food contaminant and adulterant. Moringa olifera is a widely known medicinal plant with various pharmacological properties. Herein, this study aimed to investigate, for the first time, the probable protective or therapeutic role of M. olifera ethanolic extract (MOE) against MEL induced hemato-immune toxic hazards. Fifty Sprague Dawely male rats were orally treated with distilled water, MOE (800 mg/kg bw), MEL (700 mg/kg bw), MOE/MEl or MOE + MEl. Erythrogram and leukogram profiling were evaluated to assess hematological status. Innate immune functions were evaluated via measuring lysozyme levels, nitric oxide concentration, and bactericidal activity of phagocytes. Serum immunoglobulin levels were estimated as indicators of humoral immunity. Histologic and immunohistochemical evaluations of splenic tissues were also performed. The results indicated that MEL caused a significant decline in RBC, Hb, PCV, total WBC, neutrophil, lymphocyte, phagocytes bactericidal activity, lysozyme activity, nitric oxide, total IgM and IgG levels. Also, MEL induced various pathologic lesions in the spleen with strong expression of CD4 and CD8 positive cells. MOE significantly counteracted the former anaemic, leucopenic, innate and humoral depressant effects of MEL particularly at co-exposure. In conclusion, these findings revealed that MOE could be candidate therapy against MEL hemato-immunotoxic impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Khlood M El Bohi
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
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Khalil SR, Awad A, Ali SA. Melamine and/or formaldehyde exposures affect steroidogenesis via alteration of StAR protein and testosterone synthetic enzyme expression in male mice. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2017; 50:136-144. [PMID: 28183025 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2017.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2016] [Revised: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 12/08/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The reproductive effects of melamine and formaldehyde, either alone or in combination, on mature male Swiss mice were investigated. The animals were orally administered melamine (50mg/kg/day), formaldehyde (25mg/kg/day), a mixture of melamine and formaldehyde, or a vehicle control for 65 consecutive days. As a result, the deterioration of sperm characteristics and inhibition of testicular enzyme activity were observed in the melamine- and formaldehyde-exposed groups. In addition, testosterone and luteinizing hormone levels were significantly reduced in the melamine but not in the formaldehyde-exposed group, which correlated with down-regulation of transcription levels of steroidogenic-related genes. Histopathologically, both compounds caused lesions in the testes. However, the co-exposure reduced the induced alterations in spermatogenesis, steroidogenesis, and testicular architecture that were obviously observed in the melamine-exposed group. Consequently, we demonstrated that melamine exhibited more pronounced reproductive impact in comparison with formaldehyde. In addition, formaldehyde was able to substantially temper the melamine -induced reproductive toxic effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samah R Khalil
- Forensic Medicine and Toxicology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Egypt.
| | - Ashraf Awad
- Animal Wealth Development Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Egypt
| | - Sozan A Ali
- Histology and Cytology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Egypt
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