Occurrence of 3-monochloropropanediol esters and glycidyl esters in commercial infant formulas in the United States

Al and MCPD in grain products in Gansu province, China and risk assessment

This study conducted a dietary exposure assessment of chloropropanols and aluminium, after quantifying their content in food. The mean dietary exposure to Al from total grain products was found to be 6.4E-04 mg/kg bw/week, not exceeding the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI). The results showed that the mean dietary exposure of 3-monochloro-1,2-propanediol (3-MCPD) from grain products was higher than the tolerable daily intake (TDI). Deterministic evaluations showed that the mean HQ of 1.5 to Al from fried dough twist was higher than 1. However, the HI values to Al were lower than 1 and the Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) showed that the HQ was greater than 1 at the 99% exposure level. Deterministic and probabilistic methods indicated that HQ values of 3-MCPD from grain products were above 1, whereas the mean HI value was 0.62.

Occurrence and risk assessment of glycidyl and 3-monochloropropanediol esters in infant formulas marketed in Taiwan

Glycidyl esters (GEs) and 3-monochloropropanediol esters (3-MCPDEs) are process contaminants commonly found in refined edible oils which are often added to infant formulas. The Taiwan Food and Drug Administration (TFDA) launched regulations for GEs in infant formulas that went into effect on 1 July 2021. To investigate levels of GEs and 3-MCPDEs in infant formula powder, 45 products were sampled and analysed during 2020-2021. The contents of GEs and 3-MCPDEs in formulas of different brands significantly varied, but their concentrations in all of the formulas complied with European Union (EU) regulations. Infant formulas containing palm oil had significantly higher 3-MCPDE levels in both extracted oils and milk powder than those without palm oil. Concentrations of GEs and 3-MCPDEs in infant formula powder and extracted oils were significantly lower in products from Europe than those from Australia and New Zealand. Infants aged 0-1 years in Taiwan who consumed only infant formula showed a margin of exposure (MoE) exceeding 25,000. Mean consumer exposures to 3-MCPDEs stayed below the tolerable daily intake (TDI), while high exposures at the 95th percentile (P95) exceeded the TDI by 1.7-fold. Herein, we present the changing trends in the risk assessment results of infant formula across various countries in the decade. Implementation of regulations and mitigation strategy effectively reduced the risk of infants being exposed to GEs and 3-MCPDEs through infant formula.

Alleviating 3-MCPD-induced male reproductive toxicity: Mechanistic insights and resveratrol intervention

3-Monochloropropane-1, 2-diol (3-MCPD), a food-borne contaminant, is widely regarded as the primary cause of male infertility. At present, identifying a method to improve/reduce the male reproductive toxicity caused by 3-MCPD is important. In our study, we explored the potential application of resveratrol (RSV) in mitigating the adverse effects of 3-MCPD. Using 7-week-old Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats as animal models, we investigated the impacts and underlying mechanisms of 3-MCPD and RSV on reproductive function. The administration of 3-MCPD led to significant reductions in testicular and epididymal weights, as well as disruptions in spermatogenesis and histological abnormalities. However, co-treatment with RSV and 3-MCPD mitigated these adverse effects. In vitro study, RSV exhibited the ability to reverse the decline in Leydig and Sertoli cell populations inflicted by 3-MCPD treatment. Mechanistically, RSV reduced endoplasmic reticulum stress (PARP), inflammasome activation (NLRP3), and autophagy-mediated lysosome dysfunction (p62 and LC3BII) induced by 3-MCPD. In addition, 3-MCPD treatment increased the expression level of steroidogenesis-related proteins, steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) and CYP11A1, but RSV normalized StAR expression. Moreover, 3-MCPD-induced pro-inflammatory responses were counteracted by RSV treatment, with the cytokine reduction and modulation of CD206 expression, a marker of macrophage activation. These findings indicate that RSV attenuates 3-MCPD-induced reproductive toxicity, highlighting its application potential as an adjuvant agent for male reproductive health.

Occurrence and Dietary Exposure of 3-MCPD Esters and Glycidyl Esters in Domestically and Commercially Prepared Food in Singapore

This study investigated the prevalence and occurrence of 3-monochloropropanediol esters (3-MCPDEs) and glycidyl esters (GEs) in domestically and commercially prepared food in Singapore and assessed the total dietary exposure for the Singaporean population. Minimal impact on the formation of 3-MCPDEs and GEs was observed from the domestic cooking methods commonly practiced in Singapore such as deep frying and stir frying. The estimated total dietary exposure to 3-MCPDEs for the Singaporean population (aged 15 to 92) was 0.982 µg/kg bw/day for general consumers and 2.212 µg/kg bw/day for high consumers (95th percentile), which accounted for 49.1% and 110.6% of the tolerable dietary intake (TDI) at 2 µg/kg bw/day by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). The calculated margins of exposure (MOE) for GEs based on the dietary exposure for general consumers at 0.882 µg/kg bw/day and 2.209 µg/kg bw/day for high consumers were below 10,000, indicating a potential health concern. Our study showed that the occurrence of 3-MCPDEs and GEs varied among vegetable oils, and domestic cooking methods did not significantly impact the levels of 3-MCPDEs and GEs in prepared food. The critical factor influencing the prevalence and occurrence of 3-MCPDEs and GEs was the choice of oil used for cooking, which absorbed into the cooked food. It is essential to encourage the food industry to continue its innovation on mitigation measures to control and reduce 3-MCPDEs and GEs in vegetable oil production. Consumers are advised to make informed choices on food consumption and cooking oil for food preparation to reduce their exposure to 3-MCPDEs and GEs.

Food processing contaminants: Dietary exposure to 3-MCPD and glycidol and associated burden of disease for Italian consumers

In this study we assessed Italian consumers' dietary exposure to 3-MCPD and glycidol followed by risk characterization, potential cancer risk and the associated burden of disease. Consumption data was retrieved from the most recent Italian Food Consumption Survey (2017-2020), while contamination data was obtained from the European Food Safety Authority. The level of risk due to exposure to 3-MCPD was negligible, below the tolerable daily intake (TDI), except for high consumption of infant formulas. For infants, the intake level was higher than the TDI (139-141% of TDI), indicating a potential health risk. Exposure to glycidol indicated a health concern for infants, toddlers, other children, and adolescents consuming infant formulas, plain cakes, chocolate spreads, processed cereals, biscuits, rusks, and cookies (margin of exposure (MOE) < 25,000). The risk of cancer due to exposure to glycidol was estimated and the overall health impact was quantified in Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs). The risk of cancer due to chronic dietary exposure to glycidol was estimated at 0.08-0.52 cancer cases/year/100,000 individuals depending on the life stage and dietary habits in Italy. The burden of disease quantified in DALYs varied from 0.7 to 5.37 DALYs/year/100,000 individuals. It is crucial to continuously gather consumption and occurrence data for glycidol over time to track patterns, assess potential health risks, identify exposure sources, and develop effective countermeasures, as long-term exposure to chemical contaminants can lead to an increased risk for human health. This data is critical for protecting public health and reducing the likelihood of cancer and other health issues related to glycidol exposure.

Comparison between pollutants found in breast milk and infant formula in the last decade: A review

Since ancient times, breastfeeding has been the fundamental way of nurturing the newborn. The benefits of breast milk are widely known, as it is a source of essential nutrients and provides immunological protection, as well as developmental benefits, among others. However, when breastfeeding is not possible, infant formula is the most appropriate alternative. Its composition meets the nutritional requirements of the infant, and its quality is subject to strict control by the authorities. Nonetheless, the presence of different pollutants has been detected in both matrices. Thus, the aim of the present review is to make a comparison between the findings in both breast milk and infant formula in terms of contaminants in the last decade, in order to choose the most convenient option depending on the environmental conditions. For that, the emerging pollutants including metals, chemical compounds derived from heat treatment, pharmaceutical drugs, mycotoxins, pesticides, packaging materials, and other contaminants were described. While in breast milk the most concerning contaminants found were metals and pesticides, in infant formula pollutants such as metals, mycotoxins, and packaging materials were the most outstanding. In conclusion, the convenience of using a feeding diet based on breast milk or either infant formula depends on the maternal environmental circumstances. However, it is important to take into account the immunological benefits of the breast milk compared to the infant formula, and the possibility of using breast milk in combination with infant formula when the nutritional requirements are not fulfilled only with the intake of breast milk. Therefore, more attention should be paid in terms of analyzing these conditions in each case to be able to make a proper decision, as it will vary depending on the maternal and newborn environment.

Occurrence and risk assessment of 3-monochloropropanediols esters (3-MCPDE), 2-monochloropropanediol esters (2-MCPDE), and glycidyl esters (GE) in commercial infant formula samples from Malaysia

The presence of 3-monochloropropanediol esters (3-MCPDE), 2-monochloropropanediol esters (2-MCPDE) and glycidyl esters (GE) in infant formula products has raised serious concerns. They incorporate vegetable oils, particularly palm-based oils, which are well-known to contain large amounts of these process contaminants. An analysis was conducted on infant formula samples (n = 16) obtained from the Malaysian market to determine the levels of 3-MCPDE, 2-MCPDE and GE using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The method was validated, with a limit of quantification (LOQ) on instrument of 0.10 µg/g for all analytes. The median concentrations of 3-MCPDE, 2-MCPDE and GE in infant formula in this study were 0.008 µg/g, 0.003 µg/g and 0.002 µg/g respectively. The estimated dietary intakes calculated from consumption of infant formula show higher exposures to infants within the age group of 0 to 5 months, highest for GE (1.61 µg/kg bw/day), followed by 3-MCPDE (0.68 µg/kg bw/day) and 2-MCPDE (0.41 µg/kg bw/day) compared to the age group of 6 to 12 months. Only one sample, relating to GE exposure is a potential risk for both age groups with MOE value below 25,000.

Occurrence of glycidyl esters in infant formula products on the Canadian market between 2015 and 2019

Glycidyl fatty acid esters (GEs) are processing contaminants formed during refining steps of vegetable oils. 'In vivo' hydrolysis of GEs releases potentially carcinogenic and genotoxic glycidol (2,3-epoxy-1-propanol). Occurrence of GEs in vegetable oils used for infant formula manufacturing may pose a potential health concern for formula-fed infants. Refined oils are commonly used as the main fat ingredient in formula manufacturing. For this study, different infant formula products (powders, concentrates and ready-to-feed formula products) were purchased and analysed in 2015 (35 samples) and 2019 (33 samples). Seven individual GEs were analysed by LC-MS/MS via direct approach by stable isotope dilution analysis, and total bound glycidol concentrations were calculated. Concentrations of bound glycidol in reconstituted formula reached maxima of 40.3 ng/g in the 2015 samples and 31.5 ng/g in the samples collected in 2019, with respective means of 8.7 ng/g and 6.7 ng/g. The analysed bound glycidol concentrations are comparable with concentration ranges from other studies, but are higher than observed in studies from the European market. Temporal trend data show a reduction of bound glycidol concentrations in 2019. GE concentrations were compared across different manufacturers.

Bibliometric Analysis of Research Trends on 3-Monochloropropane-1,2-Diol Esters in Foods

3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters (3-MCPDE) are common food contaminants mainly formed in the edible oil refining process. Due to their potential hazards, 3-MCPDE has become a widespread food safety concern. In this study, CiteSpace and VOSviewer were used to conduct a bibliometric analysis on the 3-MCPDE research papers collected in the Web of Science Core Collection from 1998 to 2022. The results showed that the number of research publications on 3-MCPDE has increased rapidly since 2010. Analysis of the hotspots in 3-MCPDE studies showed that more attention has been paid to the exposure assessment, formation mechanism, detection methods, mitigation methods and toxicity, and toxicology of 3-MCPDE. Finally, the future trends of research on 3-MCPDE were analyzed and proposed. The mitigation methods and toxicology studies of 3-MCPDE are still the research hotspots in the future. In addition, nutritional intervention for 3-MCPDE toxicity will be an emerging trend.

Occurrence, formation mechanism, detection methods, and removal approaches for chloropropanols and their esters in food: An updated systematic review

Chloropropanols, one of the major contaminants in food, and the corresponding esters or glycidyl esters (GEs) are of great concern in terms of product safety due to their potential carcinogenicity. During heat processing, glycerol, allyl alcohol, chloropropanol esters, sucralose, and carbohydrate in mixed foodstuffs are probable precursors of chloropropanol. The standard analytical techniques for chloropropanols or their esters are GC-MS or LC-MS following sample derivatization pretreatment. By comparing modern data against that five-year-old before, it appears that the levels of chloropropanols and their esters/GEs in food products have somewhat decreased. 3-MCPD esters or GEs may yet exceed the permitted intake set, however, especially in newborn formula which requires particularly stringent regulatory measures. Citespace (6.1. R2) software was employed in this study to examine the research focii of chloropropanols and their corresponding esters/GEs in the literature.

Dietary advanced glycation end-products, 2-monochloropropane-1,3-diol esters and 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters and glycidyl esters in infant formulas: Occurrence, formulation and processing effects, mitigation strategies

Infant formula contains thermal processing contaminants, such as dietary advanced glycation end-products (dAGEs), glycidyl esters (GEs), 2-monochloropropane-1,3-diol esters and 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters (MCPDEs). This systematic review aimed to gain insights into the occurrence of these contaminants in different types of infant formula, to understand potential effects of the formulation and processing of infant formulas on these contaminants, as well as into possible mitigation strategies. The occurrence of dAGEs in infant formula depends on the recipes and processing conditions. Hydrolyzed protein formulations promote dAGEs formation in infant formula since peptides are more prone to glycation than intact proteins, which is reflected in high dAGEs concentration in hypoallergenic infant formula. Different carbohydrates in recipes result into different glycation extents of infant formula: maltodextrin containing formulas contained less dAGEs than those with lactose. Concerning mitigation strategies, applying ultra-high-temperature (UHT) treatment during milk processing leads to less dAGEs formation than using in-bottle sterilization. Although data are limited, evidence showed that encapsulation of raw ingredients or the use of antioxidants or enzymes in recipes is promising. The occurrence of MCPDEs and GEs in infant formula fully depends on the vegetable oils used in the recipe. High levels of these contaminants can be found when relatively high amounts of palm oils or fats are used. The mitigation of MCPDEs and GEs should therefore be performed on fats and oils before their application to infant formula recipes. Data and knowledge gaps identified in this review can be useful to guide future studies.

Investigation of factors influencing the release of chloropropanols (3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP) from food contact paper

Chloropropanols such as 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) and 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol (1,3-DCP) have drawn increasing attention due to their release from food contact paper and their potential carcinogenic effects. In this study, the effects were investigated of water extraction conditions on release of chloropropanols from food contact paper, and the extraction efficiencies of chloropropanols by water extract and migration method were compared. Cold water was found to be more severe than hot water for extraction of chloropropanols, with the highest water extraction value obtained at 23°C. Two hours of extraction was sufficient as the chloropropanols can be fully extracted from food contact paper within a short period of time. Increase of temperature in the range of 10°C-60°C had little impact on release of chloropropanols, however, the extraction of chloropropanols decreased when high temperatures (80°C or above) were applied due to volatilisation losses. Hence, attention should be paid when choosing extract conditions representing the worst-case scenario. The water extraction value using EN 645 method gives higher results compared to migration test described in GB 31604.1 and GB 5009.156, suggesting that the water extract method was probably more severe. For migration test, aqueous-based simulants were found to be more conservative than oil-based simulants, suggesting the conventional experiment conditions applicable for compliance test of chloropropanols migration can be simplified and optimised.

Assessment of the Risk of Contamination of Food for Infants and Toddlers

Infants and toddlers are highly sensitive to contaminants in food. Chronic exposure can lead to developmental delays, disorders of the nervous, urinary and immune systems, and to cardiovascular disease. A literature review was conducted mainly in PubMed, Google Scholar and Scopus databases, and took into consideration papers published from October 2020 to March 2021. We focused on contaminant content, intake estimates, and exposure to contaminants most commonly found in foods consumed by infants and children aged 0.5-3 years. In the review, we included 83 publications with full access. Contaminants that pose a high health risk are toxic elements, acrylamide, bisphenol, and pesticide residues. Minor pollutants include: dioxins, mycotoxins, nitrates and nitrites, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. In order to reduce the negative health effects of food contamination, it seems reasonable to educate parents to limit foods that are potentially dangerous for infants and young children. An appropriate varied diet, selected cooking techniques, and proper food preparation can increase the likelihood that the foods children consume are safe for their health. It is necessary to monitor food contamination, adhere to high standards at every stage of production, and improve the quality of food for children.

Occurrence of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters and glycidyl esters in infant formulas from Germany

Fatty acid esters of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD), 2-monochloropropanediol-1,3-diol (2-MCPD), and glycidol are heat-induced processing contaminants formed during the deodorisation step of edible oil refining. Because these compounds are potentially carcinogenic and/or genotoxic, their presence in refined oils and fats and foods containing these oils/fats poses possible health concerns. In particular, formula-fed infants may be exposed to these compounds due to their presence in commercial infant formulas. For this reason, in 2018, the European Union established maximum limits for glycidyl esters in oils/fats and infant formulas and recently, as of January 2021, implemented regulations for the sum of free 3-MCPD and 3-MCPD fatty acid esters as well. This work involved the analysis of 3-MCPD and glycidyl ester contents in 45 infant formula products purchased from German supermarkets in 2019. The data produced in this study showed that average contaminant concentrations across all manufacturers were exceptionally low, with 100% of the products analysed falling below the current EU regulation for glycidyl esters in powdered formulas and 96% of the products analysed meeting the recently implemented regulation for the sum of free and bound 3-MCPD. In addition, a comparison of the 2019 data set to occurrence data collected for German formulas purchased in 2015 showed that average bound 3-MCPD and glycidol concentrations have decreased (from 0.094 to 0.054 µg g^-1 and from 0.010 to 0.006 µg g^-1, respectively), likely indicating that additional/improved mitigation measures for reducing contaminant concentrations in infant formulas have been implemented over the 4-year period. The data collected in this occurrence study are suitable for estimating levels of exposure to these compounds for German infants.Abbreviations: 2-MCPD: 2-monochloropropane-1,3-diol; 3-MCPD: 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol; ARA: arachidonic acid; CE: collision energy; CXP: collision cell exit potential; DHA: docosahexaenoic acid; DP: declustering potential; EP: entrance potential; EPA: eicosapentaenoic acid; EtOAc: ethyl acetate; IPA: isopropanol; LC-MS/MS: liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry; MeOH: methanol; MTBE: methyl tert-butyl ether; SPE: solid-phase extraction.

Occurrence of 3- and 2-monochloropropanediol esters in infant formulas in China and exposure assessment

The presence of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters and 2-MCPD esters in infant formulas have raised a number of food safety concerns. Here, a dietary exposure assessment was conducted for 3-and 2-MCPD esters in infant formulas available for consumption in Chinese infant and toddlers aged 0-3 years old. This work presents the occurrence data for 3-and 2-MCPD ester in 874 infant formulas purchased in China between 2015 and 2017. The concentrations of 3-MCPD esters ranged from ND to 1.469 mg/kg, with concentrations of 2-MCPD esters ranging from ND to 0.218 mg/kg. The LODs of 3-and 2-MCPD esters were 0.027-0.074 mg/kg. The mean exposures of infants and toddlers to 3-MCPD esters from formulas were lower than the tolerable daily intake (TDI, 2 μg/kg bw/day, established by EFSA), while high exposures (95th percentile) to 3-MCPD esters ranged from 0.907 to 2.520 μg/kg bw/day. On the whole, the health risk of Chinese infant and toddlers exposed to 3-MCPD esters was low, but the health risk of some infants aged 0-6 months with high formula consumption (95th percentile) raises some concern.

Evaluation of transporter expression in HK-2 cells after exposure to free and ester-bound 3-MCPD

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3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) and its fatty acid esters have the potential to induce nephrotoxicity.

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We used an in vitro cellular model of human proximal tubule cells to test the effects of 3-MCPD compound exposures on transporter gene expression.

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3-MCPD-related nephrotoxicity could be associated with indirect modes of action relating to aquaporin homeostasis.

3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) is a food processing contaminant in some infant formula products and other foods in the United States. Although rodent studies have demonstrated that 3-MCPD and its palmitic esters have the potential to induce nephrotoxicity, our recent human cell culture studies using the human renal proximal tubule cell line HK-2 have not strongly supported this finding. Considering this disparity, we sought to examine whether changes in transporter gene expression on proximal tubule cells could be modulated by these compounds and allow us to glean mechanistic information on a possible indirect path to proximal tubule injury in vivo. If fundamental processes like water and solute transport could be disrupted by 3-MCPD compounds, then a new avenue of toxicity could be further explored in both infant and adult models. In our current study, we used HK-2 cells as an in vitro cellular model of human proximal tubule cells to investigate the effects of low (10 μM) and high (100 μM) 3-MCPD compound exposures to these cells for 24 hours (h) on the expression of 20 transporter genes that are known to be relevant to proximal tubules. Although we detected consistent upregulation of AQP1 expression at the RNA transcript level following HK-2 treatment with both low and high doses of several ester-bound 3-MCPD compounds, these increases were not associated with statistically significant elevations in their protein expression levels. Moreover, we observed a lack of modulation of other members of the AQP protein family that are known to be expressed by human proximal tubule cells. Overall, our study suggests the possibility that 3-MCPD-related nephrotoxicity could be associated with indirect modes of action relating to aquaporin homeostasis, but additional studies with other human-derived models would be pertinent to further explore these findings and to better understand transporter expression differences under different stages of proximal tubule development.

In-house validation of accelerated solvent extraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for the determination of bound 3- and 2-monochloropropanediols (MCPD) and glycidol in food products

The study aimed to establish the detection method for bound 3-, 2-MCPD, and glycidol using accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The ASE was modified for reduced solvent volume and process time to extract lipid from the chocolate spread, infant formula, potato chips, and sweetened creamer. The solvent selected for ASE was a mixture of iso-hexane and acetone at 100°C with the lipid and analyte recovery ranging from 96.9% to 98.6% and 84.1% to 107.5%, respectively. The derivatisation of analytes was adopted from the AOCS method Cd29a-13 for GC-MS analysis. The results showed that the coefficient of determination (R²) of all analytes was >0.99. The limit of detection (LOD) was 0.1 mg kg^-1 expressed in lipid basis for both bound 3- and 2-MCPD and 0.2 mg kg^-1 expressed in lipid basis for bound glycidol. The limit of quantitation (LOQ) was 0.3 mg kg^-1 expressed in lipid basis for both bound 3- and 2-MCPD and 0.6 mg kg^-1 expressed in lipid basis for bound glycidol. A blank spiked with 3-monochloropropanediols fatty acid esters (MCPDE) and 2-MCPDE (0.3, 2.1, and 7.2 mg kg^-1) and glycidol esters (0.6, 4.7, and 16.6 mg kg^-1) were chosen for accuracy and precision tests. The recoveries were 91.7% to 105.9%. Both repeatability and within-laboratory reproducibility of the analysis were within the acceptable level of precision ranging from 1.7% to 16%. This is the first time that a full validation procedure extending to both accuracy and precision tests has been carried out for sweetened creamer and chocolate spread. Overall, the combined protocol of ASE and AOCS Cd29a-13 was successfully validated for both solid and liquid food samples with lipid content from 10% to 30%.

Dietary exposure to fatty acid esters of monochloropropanediols and glycidol of 2- to 3-year-old children attending nursery schools from two areas in China using the duplicate-diet collection method

The dietary exposures to fatty esters of 3- and 2-monochloropropanediol (MCPD) and glycidol were estimated for children aged 2- to 3-year-old from two areas of China using duplicate diet collection method. The 24-h daily duplicate diet samples over three consecutive days were collected from 40 healthy children aged between 26 and 36 months. The analysis of these contaminates in food samples was measured by an indirect method that entails MCPD/glycidol cleavage from their esterified forms for GC-MS analysis. Over 71% of the mixed diet and dairy products samples were found to be contaminated with 3-MCPD and glycidyl esters. The estimated daily exposure to bound 3-MCPD (mean: 0.48-0.49 μg kg^-1 bw day^-1; P95: 1.00-1.11 μg kg^-1 bw day^-1) were well below the health guidance values and were considered of low safety concern. The daily exposure to bound 2-MCPD was estimated to be 0.031-0.038 μg kg^-1 bw day^-1 on average and 0.12-0.14 μg kg^-1 bw day^-1 for the P95 exposure. However, it was not possible to assess its risk due to the lack of health guidance value of 2-MCPD. The margin of exposure (MOE) estimates for the mean exposure to bound glycidol (0.10-0.12 μg kg^-1 bw day^-1) were far above 10000 and were considered of low safety concern. However, the margin of exposure estimates for the P95 bound glycidol exposure (0.41-0.45 μg kg^-1 bw day^-1) were below 10000 and indicated a health concern. Our data indicated that the mixed diet accounted for nearly 76% to 91% of bound MCPD and glycidol exposure. In addition, the follow-on formula was also an important source for the children aged 2-3 years.

A Revisit to the Formation and Mitigation of 3-Chloropropane-1,2-Diol in Palm Oil Production

Process-based contaminants in food—particularly in vegetable oils—have been a topic of interest due to their potential health risk on humans. Oral consumption above the tolerable daily intake might result in health risks. Therefore, it is critical to correctly address the food contaminant issues with a proper mitigation plan, in order to reduce and subsequently remove the occurrence of the contaminant. 3-monochloropropane-1,3-diol (3-MCPD), an organic chemical compound, is one of the heat- and process-induced food contaminants, belonging to a group called chloropropanols. This review paper discusses the occurrence of the 3-MCPD food contaminant in different types of vegetable oils, possible 3-MCPD formation routes, and also methods of reduction or removal of 3-MCPD in its free and bound esterified forms in vegetable oils, mostly in palm oil due to its highest 3-MCPD content.

Occurrence of MCPD and glycidyl fatty acid esters in standard and specialised infant formula in Denmark

Standard infant formula and specialised infant formula for medical purposes in Denmark (n = 42) were assessed for the levels of 2-MCPDEs, 3-MCPDEs, and GEs. Similar concentrations of GEs were observed in both standard and specialised powder infant formula at around 11.5 µg/kg. For 2-MCPDEs and 3-MCPDEs, significantly higher concentrations were observed in specialised products (18.0 and 49.8 µg/kg, respectively) in comparison with the standard ones (11.8 and 31.0 µg/kg, respectively). The concentration profiles also revealed discrepancies in MCPDEs and GEs concentrations not only between different manufacturers but also in terms of infant formula variety. For instance, the hypoallergenic powder formula showed twice as much MCPDEs as the normal formula variety. Exposure estimation using average contaminant concentrations in each variety suggested no potential risk of 3-MCPDEs and GEs intake for Danish infants via infant formula consumption. However, special attention is required for a few specific products where risks might occur in terms of 3-MCPDEs and/or GEs consumption.

Design of new lipids from bovine milk fat for baby nutrition

The lipid phase of infant formulas is generally composed of plant-based lipids structured with a high concentration of palmitic acid (C16:0) esterified at the sn-2 position of triacylglycerol since this structure favors the absorption and metabolism of fatty acids. Palm oil is commonly used to make up the lipid phase of infant formulas due to its high concentration of palmitic acid and solids profile and melting point similar to human milk fat. However, the addition of palm oil to infant formulas has been associated with the presence of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters, a group of glycerol-derived chemical contaminants (1,2,3-propanotriol), potentially toxic, formed during the refining process of vegetable oil. Bovine milk fat obtained from the complex biosynthesis in the mammary gland has potential as a technological alternative to replace palm oil and its fractions for the production of structured lipids to be used in infant formulas. Its application as a substitute is due to its composition and structure, which resembles breast milk fat, and essentially to the preferential distribution pattern of palmitic acids (C16:0) with approximately 85% distributed at the sn-1 and sn-2 position of triacylglycerol. This review will address the relationship between the chemical composition and structure of lipids in infant nutrition, as well as the potential of bovine milk fat as a basis for the production of structured lipids in substitution for the lipid phase of vegetable origin currently used in infant formulas.

In vitro toxicological assessment of free 3-MCPD and select 3-MCPD esters on human proximal tubule HK-2 cells

Chloropropanols are chemical contaminants that can be formed during industrial processing of foods, such as lipids used in commercially available infant and toddler formula in the USA. Many researchers have studied the most common chloropropanol contaminant, 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD), as well as its lipid ester derivatives. A plethora of toxicological outcomes have been described in vivo, including effects on the heart, nervous system, reproductive organs, and kidneys. To better understand the concordance of some of these effects to in vitro outcomes, we focused our research on using an in vitro cellular model to investigate whether the proximal tubule cells of the kidney would be vulnerable to the effects of free 3-MCPD and nine of its common esters in commercial formula. Using the established human kidney proximal tubule cell line, HK-2, we performed 24-h treatments using 3-MCPD and nine mono- or di-esters derived from palmitate, oleate, and linoleate. By directly exposing HK-2 cells at treatment doses ranging from 0 to 100 μM, we could evaluate their effects on cell viability, mitochondrial health, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and other endpoints of toxicity. Since chloropropanols reportedly inhibit cellular metabolism through interference with glycolysis, we also tested the extent of this mechanism. Overall, we found mild but statistically significant evidence of cytotoxicity at the highest tested treatment concentrations, which were also associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and transient perturbations in cellular metabolism. Based on these findings, further studies will be required to better understand the effects of these compounds under conditions that are more physiologically relevant to human infant and toddler proximal tubules in order to mimic their exposure to chloropropanol-containing foods.

Palm Oil and Beta-palmitate in Infant Formula: A Position Paper by the European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) Committee on Nutrition

BACKGROUND

Palm oil (PO) is used in infant formulas in order to achieve palmitic acid (PA) levels similar to those in human milk. PA in PO is esterified predominantly at the SN-1,3 position of triacylglycerol (TAG), and infant formulas are now available in which a greater proportion of PA is in the SN-2 position (typical configuration in human milk). As there are some concerns about the use of PO, we aimed to review literature on health effects of PO and SN-2-palmitate in infant formulas.

METHODS

PubMed and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews were systematically searched for relevant studies on possible beneficial effects or harms of either PO or SN-2-palmitate in infant formula on various health outcomes.

RESULTS

We identified 12 relevant studies using PO and 21 studies using SN-2-palmitate. Published studies have variable methodology, subject characteristics, and some are underpowered for the key outcomes. PO is associated with harder stools and SN-2-palmitate use may lead to softer stool consistency. Bone effects seem to be short-lasting. For some outcomes (infant colic, faecal microbiota, lipid metabolism), the number of studies is very limited and summary evidence inconclusive. Growth of infants is not influenced. There are no studies published on the effect on markers of later diseases.

CONCLUSIONS

There is insufficient evidence to suggest that PO should be avoided as a source of fat in infant formulas for health reasons. Inclusion of high SN-2-palmitate fat blend in infant formulas may have short-term effects on stool consistency but cannot be considered essential.

Fatty Acid Esters of 3-Monochloropropanediol: A Review

Fatty acid esters of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD esters) are a new group of processing-induced chemical toxicants with possible nephrotoxicity and testicular toxicity. 3-MCPD esters have been detected in many food categories, including refined edible oils, bread, coffee, and infant formula. 3-MCPD esters have also been detected in human breast milk, indicating their possible absorption and distribution in human organs and tissues. 3-MCPD esters have become a food safety concern, and in 2013 the European Food Safety Authority estimated a tolerable daily value (TDI) of 2 μg/kg body weight (BW) for the amount of free 3-MCPD. This review summarizes the available information on 3-MCPD ester research, including the analytical methods, exposure biomarkers, absorption and metabolism, toxicities, formation mechanisms, and mitigation strategies as well as the occurrence of 3-MCPD esters in human foods. This review may serve as a scientific foundation for advancing our understanding of 3-MCPD esters and their food safety concerns.