Evaluation of acrylamide and selected parameters in some Turkish coffee brands from the Turkish market

A Comprehensive Bibliometric Study in the Context of Chemical Hazards in Coffee

The research aimed to carefully review the chemical hazards linked to the coffee production chain to analyse the risks and opportunities for consumers and the environment, as well as identify potential knowledge gaps. The Scopus database was consulted from 1949 to April 2024 to conduct a bibliometric analysis. As a result, 680 articles were analysed. Results indicated a significant increase in research activity since 2015. China, Brazil, and the USA were the leading countries in scientific production and collaborations. The most prolific journals in this field were Chemosphere, Science of the Total Environment, Food Chemistry, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, and Journal of Environmental Management, all of which are in the first quartile. The word analysis revealed two main themes: the first focuses on the chemical hazards of coffee and their impact on health, while the second explores the waste generated during coffee production and its potential for reuse. The topics covered in the research include the composition of coffee, associated chemical hazards, possible health risks, and ways to reuse waste for environmental protection. Future research should concentrate on optimising techniques and processes to ensure quality, safety, and sustainability.

Traditional food processing and Acrylamide formation: A review

Tradition methods that are applied for the processing of food commonly use relatively high temperature and long cooking time for the preparation of foods. This relatively high temperature and long processing time of foods especially in the presence of carbohydrate is highly associated with the formation of acrylamide. Acrylamide is a process contaminant that is highly toxic to humans and remains as a global issue. The occurrence of acrylamide in traditional foods is a major public health problem. Studies that are conducted in different countries indicated that traditionally processed foods are highly linked to the formation of acrylamide. Therefore, understanding the factors influencing acrylamide formation during traditional food processing techniques is crucial for ensuring food safety and minimizing exposure to this harmful chemical compound. Several research reports indicate that proper food processing is the most effective solution to address food safety concerns by identifying foods susceptible to acrylamide formation. This review aims to provide an overview of traditional food processing techniques and their potential contribution to the formation acrylamide and highlight the importance of mitigating its formation in food products. The information obtained in this review may be of great value to future researchers, policymakers, society, and manufacturers.

Detection of the 5-hydroxymethylfurfural content in roasted coffee using machine learning based on near-infrared spectroscopy

Since 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) is carcinogenic to humans, its detection in foods is essential. This study performed near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy (11998-4000 cm^-1) to determine the 5-HMF content in roasted coffee. The random forest (RF) was used to extract important wavenumbers, after which three machine learning models (ordinary least square (OLS), support vector machine (SVM), and RF) were established for the prediction. RF obtained the best prediction results (R_c² = 0.98 and R_p² = 0.92) compared with OLS and SVM and effectively extracted the important wavenumbers (11667 cm^-1, 11666 cm^-1, 10905 cm^-1, 7096 cm^-1, 7095 cm^-1, 7094 cm^-1, 7093 cm^-1, 7092 cm^-1, 5054 cm^-1, 5026 cm^-1, 5025 cm^-1, and 5024 cm^-1). The results demonstrated that machine learning models based on NIR spectroscopy could provide a non-destructive approach for determining 5-HMF content in roasted coffee.

Production and Inhibition of Acrylamide during Coffee Processing: A Literature Review

Coffee is the third-largest beverage with wide-scale production. It is consumed by a large number of people worldwide. However, acrylamide (AA) is produced during coffee processing, which seriously affects its quality and safety. Coffee beans are rich in asparagine and carbohydrates, which are precursors of the Maillard reaction and AA. AA produced during coffee processing increases the risk of damage to the nervous system, immune system, and genetic makeup of humans. Here, we briefly introduce the formation and harmful effects of AA during coffee processing, with a focus on the research progress of technologies to control or reduce AA generation at different processing stages. Our study aims to provide different strategies for inhibiting AA formation during coffee processing and investigate related inhibition mechanisms.

Exploring correlations between green coffee bean components and thermal contaminants in roasted coffee beans

This study evaluated chemical compositions of green coffee beans from multi-production regions and correlated this information with thermal contaminants in roasted coffee. Using multivariate statistical techniques, formation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF), furan, 2- and 3-methylfuran were positively correlated with lipid, sucrose, glutamic acid, phenylalanine, margaric acid, linolenic acid and trigonelline in green coffee beans. Moreover, significant positive correlations between acrylamide (AA) levels with aspartic acid, serine, alanine, histidine, asparagine, protein, and caffeine was found in green beans. Despite this, 5-HMF, furan, 2- and 3-methylfuran showed negative correlations with active constitutes (neochlorogenic acid, cryptochlorogenic acid, caffeine, total phenolics (TPC) and total flavonoids contents (TFC)), and several amino acids, and there were slight negative relationships between AA and myristic acid, palmitic acid, chlorogenic acid, sucrose, lipid, TPC and TFC. This study provides valuable enlightenment for the selection of proper coffee beans for production of coffee with high nutrition and low chemical hazardous risks.

Effects of Different Processing Methods of Coffee Arabica on Colour, Acrylamide, Caffeine, Chlorogenic Acid, and Polyphenol Content

An effect of a processing method (dry and wet) and a degree of roasting (light, medium, and dark) of 15 coffee (Coffea arabica) samples on the content of caffeine, chlorogenic acid (CQA), total polyphenols (TPP), acrylamide (AA), and on the colour parameters L*, a*, and b* was evaluated. Neither processing nor roasting affected caffeine content (p > 0.05). The degree of roasting accounted for 46% and 72% of explained variability of the CQA content and AA content, respectively (p < 0.05). AA content was in the range from 250 (wet-processed, light-roasted samples) to 305 µg·kg-1 (wet-processed, dark-roasted coffees), but the dark roasting only tended (p > 0.05) to increase AA content. Wet-processed, dry-roasted coffee had higher (p < 0.05) TPP content (48.5 mg·g-1) than its dry-processed, dry-roasted counterpart (42.5 mg·g-1); the method of processing accounted for 70% of explained variability of TPP. Both the method of processing and the degree of roasting affected the L*, a*, and b* values (p < 0.01), but the lower values (p < 0.05) of these parameters in the dark-roasted samples were found only within the wet processing. A negative correlation between the AA content and lightness (L*) was established (r = -0.39, p < 0.05). It was concluded that from the consumers' viewpoint, the results of the present study indicate relatively small differences in quality parameters of coffee irrespective of the method of processing or degree of roasting.

A novel single step solid-phase extraction combined with bromine derivatization method for rapid determination of acrylamide in coffee and its products by stable isotope dilution ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem triple quadrupole electrospray ionization mass spectrometry

This work aimed to establish a novel determination method for acrylamide in coffee and its products by ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). Acrylamide in samples were prepared by a single-step solid-phase extraction clean-up using mixed mode sorbents. The bromine derivatization efficiency of acrylamide and its internal standard were improved at an acidic condition. After derivation, the retention capability of acrylamide and its resistance to interference were significantly improved. The limit of detection (LOD) and the limit of quantification (LOQ) were 1.2 and 4 μg/kg for roasted and instant coffees, while they were 0.24 and 0.8 μg/kg for ready-to-drink coffees. The average recoveries for acrylamide ranged from 99.3 to 102.2% in coffee and its products. All the results showed that the developed method was simple, quick, specific and suitable for screening and determination of acrylamide in batch samples of coffee and its products.

Towards a consensus LC-MS/MS method for the determination of acrylamide in food that prevents overestimation due to interferences

Acrylamide is prone to misquantification, and critical steps in the analytical procedures need to be identified and controlled to ensure a reliable determination. Four methods were considered to illustrate misquantification issues with acrylamide. For two methods varying by the extent of their sample preparations, cases of overestimation in cocoa samples reaching up to a 20-fold factor are shown. A second example, applied to a variety of food products, includes two other methods varying by their chromatographic conditions. As a follow up of a study conducted in 2020 about the identification of N-acetyl-ß-alanine as an interference of acrylamide in coffee, the extent of this interference was evaluated in a selection of coffee samples, cereal-based products and baby foods. The ultimate objective of this manuscript was to resolve such cases of misquantification and validate a wide scope and robust method allowing an interference free acrylamide analysis. To do so, an extraction procedure based on the EN 16618:2015 standard with water extraction and two consecutive solid phase extraction (SPE) steps was applied with modified liquid chromatographic conditions. The method was validated in coffee, cereals, baby foods, cocoa and pet foods with excellent performance in terms of recovery (97-108%) and precision (RSD_r and RSD_iR <12 %). The breath of scope was further proved through trueness determination in quality control materials and reference materials including French fries, potato crisps, vegetable crisps, instant coffee, infant food and biscuit (cookie), with trueness values found within a 94-107% range.

Dietary Pattern, Genomic Stability and Relative Cancer Risk in Asian Food Landscape

The incidence of cancer globally is increasing, partly due to lifestyle factors. Despite a better understanding of cancer biology and advancement in cancer management and therapies, current strategies in cancer treatment remain costly and cause socioeconomic burden especially in Asian countries. Hence, instead of putting more efforts in searches for new cancer cures, attention has now shifted to understanding how to mitigate cancer risk by modulating lifestyle factors. It has been established that carcinogenesis is multifactorial, and the important detrimental role of oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, and genomic instability is evident. To date, there is no study linking dietary pattern and genomic stability in cancer risk in the Asian food landscape. Thus, this present review article discusses recent literature on dietary pattern and genomic stability and its relationship with cancer risk in Asia.

Impact of inert and inhibitor baking atmosphere on HMF and acrylamide formation in bread

The baking in N₂ and CO₂ atmosphere decreased by 50% the acrylamide, while this level was 99% in SO₂. The highest acrylamide content was detected in the control sample as 39.03 µg/kg. Additionally, the lowest HMF content was determined in S-bread as 14.85 mg/kg. The baking atmosphere has a significant impact on L* and a* colour values of bread. The highest L* value was measured in S-bread as 71.2, whereas it was the lowest in the control sample as 49.1. According to the Pearson results, acrylamide showed a negative correlation between L* value. However, no correlation was detected between colour values and HMF. Acrylamide had a positive correlation with flavour, although it did not affect the taste features of bread. No correlation between HMF and sensory properties was determined. The result of the study suggested that inert or inhibitor baking atmosphere may help prevent the Maillard reactions in bakery products.

Investigating the effects of geographical origin, roasting degree, particle size and brewing method on the physicochemical and spectral properties of Arabica coffee by PCA analysis

Effects of geographical origin of Coffee Arabica beans (Brazil, Colombia and Peru), roasting degree, particle size and different brewing methods (French press, chemex and cold brew) on physicochemical and spectral properties of coffee samples were investigated in this study. Analyses of pH, total phenolic content (TPC) and total antioxidant activity (TA), UV and fluorescence spectroscopy measurements were performed. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to obtain the most effective parameters on chemical changes. Results indicated that the increase of roasting degree caused decrements in the intensities of UV-spectra because of the degradation of trigonelline and chlorogenic acid molecules while counterpart trend was observed in the fluorescence spectra due to formation of fluorescence Maillard reaction products (MRP) during roasting. French press and cold brew methods caused similar TPC (1873.33-3818.33 and 2648.88-3824.44 μg/mL gallic acid equivalent, respectively) and TA (0.18-0.32 and 0.16-0.27 μmol/mL Trolox equivalent, respectively) values whereas chemex method showed different physicochemical properties (TPC: 1008.88-3543.88 μg/mL gallic acid equivalent and TA: 0.08-0.26 μmol/mL Trolox equivalent). Roasting degree and brewing method-compared to other parameters-were the most discriminating factors on the basis of UV spectra and fluorescence spectra of coffee brew samples, respectively. All roasting degrees could be distinguished with the rate of 71.42% on PC1 and 23.45% on PC2 of total variance according to UV-spectra while chemex and French press-cold brew methods could be differentiated with the rate of 97.24% on PC1 and 1.79% on PC2 of total variance based on fluorescence spectra on PCA score graphs.

The determination of acrylamide content in brewed coffee samples marketed in Turkey

Coffee is a beverage that is widely enjoyed and consumed by all segments of society. As well as having a rich content, it contains acrylamide, defined as 'a probable carcinogen for humans' by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The aim of this study was both to determine the acrylamide levels of ready-to-drink coffees from various coffee brands marketed in Turkey and to offer a resource for risk assessment and acrylamide exposure studies in this area. For this purpose, a total of 41 coffee samples (22 instant coffee, 7 traditional Turkish coffee and 12 ready-to-drink (brewed) coffee) obtained from local markets and coffee shops were analysed in terms of acrylamide content. LC-MS/MS was used to detect the acrylamide content in the samples. The levels of acrylamide ranged from 16.5 to 79.5 ng mL^-1 in instant coffees, from 5.9 to 38.8 ng mL^-1 in ready-to-drink (brewed) coffees and from 5.3-54.8 ng mL^-1 in Turkish coffee and other traditional coffees. The study showed that instant coffee includes the highest level of acrylamide among the other types. In addition, it was found that terebinth coffee, a form of traditional Turkish coffee, had a high content of acrylamide.