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Duncan TV, Khan SA, Patri AK, Wiggins S. Regulatory Science Perspective on the Analysis of Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Human Food. Anal Chem 2024; 96:4343-4358. [PMID: 38452774 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c05408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
Microplastics are increasingly reported, not only in the environment but also in a wide range of food commodities. While studies on microplastics in food abound, the current state of science is limited in its application to regulatory risk assessment by a continued lack of standardized definitions, reference materials, sample collection and preparation procedures, fit-for purpose analytical methods for real-world and environmentally relevant plastic mixtures, and appropriate quality controls. This is particularly the case for nanoplastics. These methodological challenges hinder robust, quantitative exposure assessments of microplastic and nanoplastic mixtures from food consumption. Furthermore, limited toxicological studies on whether microplastics and nanoplastics adversely impact human health are also impeded by methodology challenges. Food safety regulatory agencies must consider both the exposure and the risk of contaminants of emerging concern to ascertain potential harm. Foundational to this effort is access to and application of analytical methods with the capability to quantify and characterize micro- and nanoscale sized polymers in complex food matrices. However, the early stages of method development and application of early stage methods to study the distribution and potential health effects of microplastics and nanoplastics in food have largely been done without consideration of the stringent requirements of methods to inform regulatory activities. We provide regulatory science perspectives on the state of knowledge regarding the occurrence of microplastics and nanoplastics in food and present our general approach for developing, validating, and implementing analytical methods for regulatory purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy V Duncan
- Division of Food Processing Science and Technology, Office of Food Safety, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, United States Food and Drug Administration, Bedford Park, Illinois 60501, United States
| | - Sadia Afrin Khan
- Division of Analytical Chemistry, Office of Regulatory Science, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, United States Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland 20740, United States
| | - Anil K Patri
- Nanotechnology Core Facility, Office of Scientific Coordination, National Center for Toxicological Research, United States Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, Arkansas 72029, United States
| | - Stacey Wiggins
- Division of Seafood Safety, Office of Food Safety, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, United States Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland 20740, United States
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2
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Canga EM, Gowen A, Xu JL. Assessing the inconsistency of microplastic measurements in foods and beverages. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2024; 23:e13315. [PMID: 38462817 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.13315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
The widespread occurrence of microplastics (MPs) in the food chain has gained substantial recognition as a pressing concern, highlighting the inevitability of human exposure through ingestion of foodborne MPs, coupled with the release of MPs from plastic packaging. However, there are notable disparities in the reported numbers of MPs in foods and beverages, warranting a thorough investigation into the factors contributing to these discrepancies. Table salt is one of the major sources of MPs, and there was an approximately hundred-fold difference between the reviewed studies that reported the highest and lowest number of MPs. In addition, more noticeable discrepancies were discovered between studies on MPs released from teabags. One study reported that approximately 15 billion MPs were released into a cup of tea from a single teabag, whereas another research paper found only approximately 106.3 ± 14.6 MP/teabag after brewing. This comprehensive review focuses on the inconsistencies observed across studies examining MPs, shedding light on the plausible factors underlying these variations. Furthermore, the review outlines areas in analytical procedures that require enhancement and offers recommendations to promote accuracy and standardization in future research efforts, such as employing analytical methods capable of confirming the presence of MPs, using appropriate filter sizes, considering representative sample sizes when extrapolation is involved, and so on. By pinpointing the detection processes leading to the inconsistent results observed in MP studies, this comparative analysis will contribute to the development of reliable analytic methods for understanding the extent of microplastic contamination in the human food chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emine Merve Canga
- UCD School of Biosystems and Food Engineering, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Aoife Gowen
- UCD School of Biosystems and Food Engineering, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Jun-Li Xu
- UCD School of Biosystems and Food Engineering, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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3
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Yang C, Xie J, Gowen A, Xu JL. Machine learning driven methodology for enhanced nylon microplastic detection and characterization. Sci Rep 2024; 14:3464. [PMID: 38342944 PMCID: PMC10859384 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-54003-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/13/2024] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the field of microplastic (MP) research has evolved significantly; however, the lack of a standardized detection methodology has led to incomparability across studies. Addressing this gap, our current study innovates a reliable MP detection system that synergizes sample processing, machine learning, and optical photothermal infrared (O-PTIR) spectroscopy. This approach includes examining high-temperature filtration and alcohol treatment for reducing non-MP particles and utilizing a support vector machine (SVM) classifier focused on key wavenumbers that could discriminate between nylon MPs and non-nylon MPs (1077, 1541, 1635, 1711 cm-1 were selected based on the feature importance of SVM-Full wavenumber model) for enhanced MP identification. The SVM model built from key wavenumbers demonstrates a high accuracy rate of 91.33%. Results show that alcohol treatment is effective in minimizing non-MP particles, while filtration at 70 °C has limited impact. Additionally, this method was applied to assess MPs released from commercial nylon teabags, revealing an average release of 106 particles per teabag. This research integrates machine learning with O-PTIR spectroscopy, paving the way for potential standardization in MP detection methodologies and providing vital insights into their environmental and health implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cihang Yang
- School of Biosystems and Food Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Junhao Xie
- School of Biosystems and Food Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Aoife Gowen
- School of Biosystems and Food Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - Jun-Li Xu
- School of Biosystems and Food Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
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Xu Z, Shen J, Lin L, Chen J, Wang L, Deng X, Wu X, Lin Z, Zhang Y, Yu R, Xu Z, Zhang J, Zhang Y, Wang C. Exposure to irregular microplastic shed from baby bottles activates the ROS/NLRP3/Caspase-1 signaling pathway, causing intestinal inflammation. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2023; 181:108296. [PMID: 37924603 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.108296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 10/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/06/2023]
Abstract
Irregularly shaped microplastics (MPs) released from infant feeding bottles (PP-IFBs) may exhibit increased cytotoxicity, in contrast to the commonly studied spherical MPs. This study presents an initial analysis of the thermal-oxidative aging process of plastic shedding from feeding bottles, and investigates the inflammatory response induced by these atypical MPs in human intestinal cells (Caco-2). The PP-IFBs' surface displayed non-uniform white patches and increased roughness, revealing substantial structural alteration and shedding, especially during actions such as shaking, boiling water disinfection, and microwave heating. FT-IR and 2D-COS analyses revealed that oxygen targeted the C-H and C-C bonds of polypropylene molecular chain, producing RO· and ·OH, thereby hastening polypropylene degradation. When human intestinal cells were exposed to MPs from PP-IFBs, oxidative stress was triggered, resulting in lowered glutathione levels, augmented reactive oxygen species (ROS), and heightened lipid peroxidation. Elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6 and TNFα) signified an active inflammatory process. The inflammatory response was notably more intense when exposed to MPs released through boiling water disinfection and microwave heating treatments, primarily due to the larger quantity of MPs released and their higher proportion of smaller particles. Furthermore, the NLRP3 inflammasome was identified as critical in initiating this inflammatory chain reaction due to the mitochondrial ROS surge caused by MPs exposure. This was further validated by inhibitor studies, emphasizing the role of the ROS/NLRP3/Caspase-1/IL-1β signaling pathway in in promoting intestinal inflammation. Therefore, swift actions are recommended to protect infants against the potential health effects of MPs exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhimin Xu
- College of Resources and Environment, Zhongkai University of Agriculture and Engineering, Guangzhou 510225, China
| | - Jiemiao Shen
- Key Lab of Modern Toxicology of Ministry of Education, Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
| | - Lihong Lin
- College of Resources and Environment, Zhongkai University of Agriculture and Engineering, Guangzhou 510225, China
| | - Jieting Chen
- College of Resources and Environment, Zhongkai University of Agriculture and Engineering, Guangzhou 510225, China
| | - Lei Wang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Xingying Deng
- College of Resources and Environment, Zhongkai University of Agriculture and Engineering, Guangzhou 510225, China
| | - Xinyue Wu
- College of Resources and Environment, Zhongkai University of Agriculture and Engineering, Guangzhou 510225, China
| | - Zheng Lin
- College of Resources and Environment, Zhongkai University of Agriculture and Engineering, Guangzhou 510225, China
| | - Yuxue Zhang
- College of Resources and Environment, Zhongkai University of Agriculture and Engineering, Guangzhou 510225, China
| | - Renqiang Yu
- Department of Neonatology, Wuxi Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Women's Hospital of Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Zhihao Xu
- Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Jinggangshan University, Jian 343009, China
| | - Jiexiang Zhang
- GRG Metrology& Test Group Co., Ltd., Guangzhou 510656, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210000, China.
| | - Chao Wang
- Key Lab of Modern Toxicology of Ministry of Education, Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China.
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Liu L, Zhang X, Jia P, He S, Dai H, Deng S, Han J. Release of microplastics from breastmilk storage bags and assessment of intake by infants: A preliminary study. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 323:121197. [PMID: 36736818 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of microplastic contaminants in food intended for human consumption has been widely explored. Yet, investigations on plastic and other particle debris in baby food packaging remain scarce to date. Our study shows the release of abundant micro-sized and submicron-sized particles, floccules (<300 μm), and fragments (1-50 μm) during the simulated use of commercially available single-use breastmilk storage bags. Six best-selling products of breastmilk storage bags were selected in our study. Most of the particles released from breastmilk storage bags that were identified as plastics were found to be polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and nylon-6 using micro-Raman spectroscopy. The weight of the particles released from three randomly selected bags of the same product type was determined to be in the range of 0.22 and 0.47 mg. Submicron-sized particles (<0.8 μm) with irregular spherical or oval shapes were present. Microplastics and other particles ingested by infants from the use of breastmilk storage bags were estimated to be 0.61-0.89 mg/day based on the average daily breastmilk intake by infants. This study provides new insights into the exposure to microplastics and other particle debris in commonly used infant products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liping Liu
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory for Environmental Pollution Prediction and Control, Gansu Province, College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, People's Republic of China
| | - Xue Zhang
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory for Environmental Pollution Prediction and Control, Gansu Province, College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, People's Republic of China
| | - Puqi Jia
- Key Laboratory for Environmental Pollution Prediction and Control, Gansu Province, College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, People's Republic of China; College of Science and Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Huanghua, 061100, People's Republic of China
| | - Shanshan He
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, People's Republic of China
| | - Han Dai
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, People's Republic of China
| | - Shihai Deng
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Han
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, People's Republic of China.
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Mandemaker LDB, Meirer F. Spectro-Microscopic Techniques for Studying Nanoplastics in the Environment and in Organisms. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202210494. [PMID: 36278811 PMCID: PMC10100025 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202210494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Nanoplastics (NPs), small (<1 μm) polymer particles formed from bulk plastics, are a potential threat to human health and the environment. Orders of magnitude smaller than microplastics (MPs), they might behave differently due to their larger surface area and small size, which allows them to diffuse through organic barriers. However, detecting NPs in the environment and organic matrices has proven to be difficult, as their chemical nature is similar to these matrices. Furthermore, as their size is smaller than the (spatial) detection limit of common analytical tools, they are hard to find and quantify. We highlight different micro-spectroscopic techniques utilized for NP detection and argue that an analysis procedure should involve both particle imaging and correlative or direct chemical characterization of the same particles or samples. Finally, we highlight methods that can do both simultaneously, but with the downside that large particle numbers and statistics cannot be obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurens D. B. Mandemaker
- Inorganic Chemistry and CatalysisDebye Institute for Nanomaterial ScienceUniversiteitsweg 993584 CGUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Florian Meirer
- Inorganic Chemistry and CatalysisDebye Institute for Nanomaterial ScienceUniversiteitsweg 993584 CGUtrechtThe Netherlands
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Li D, Sheerin ED, Shi Y, Xiao L, Yang L, Boland JJ, Wang JJ. Alcohol Pretreatment to Eliminate the Interference of Micro Additive Particles in the Identification of Microplastics Using Raman Spectroscopy. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:12158-12168. [PMID: 36006854 PMCID: PMC9454250 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c01551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Revised: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Raman spectroscopy is an indispensable tool in the analysis of microplastics smaller than 20 μm. However, due to its limitation, Raman spectroscopy may be incapable of effectively distinguishing microplastics from micro additive particles. To validate this hypothesis, we characterized and compared the Raman spectra of six typical slip additives with polyethylene and found that their hit quality index values (0.93-0.96) are much higher than the accepted threshold value (0.70) used to identify microplastics. To prevent this interference, a new protocol involving an alcohol treatment step was introduced to successfully eliminate additive particles and accurately identify microplastics. Tests using the new protocol showed that three typical plastic products (polyethylene pellets, polyethylene bottle caps, and polypropylene food containers) can simultaneously release microplastic-like additive particles and microplastics regardless of the plastic type, daily-use scenario, or service duration. Micro additive particles can also adsorb onto and modify the surfaces of microplastics in a manner that may potentially increase their health risks. This study not only reveals the hidden problem associated with the substantial interference of additive particles in microplastic detection but also provides a cost-effective method to eliminate this interference and a rigorous basis to quantify the risks associated with microplastic exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dunzhu Li
- AMBER
Research Centre and Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures
and Nanodevices (CRANN), Trinity College
Dublin, Dublin D02 PN40, Ireland
- Department
of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin D02 PN40, Ireland
| | - Emmet D. Sheerin
- AMBER
Research Centre and Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures
and Nanodevices (CRANN), Trinity College
Dublin, Dublin D02 PN40, Ireland
- School
of Chemistry, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin D02 PN40, Ireland
| | - Yunhong Shi
- AMBER
Research Centre and Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures
and Nanodevices (CRANN), Trinity College
Dublin, Dublin D02 PN40, Ireland
- Department
of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin D02 PN40, Ireland
| | - Liwen Xiao
- Department
of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin D02 PN40, Ireland
- TrinityHaus, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin D02 PN40, Ireland
| | - Luming Yang
- AMBER
Research Centre and Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures
and Nanodevices (CRANN), Trinity College
Dublin, Dublin D02 PN40, Ireland
- Department
of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin D02 PN40, Ireland
| | - John J. Boland
- AMBER
Research Centre and Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures
and Nanodevices (CRANN), Trinity College
Dublin, Dublin D02 PN40, Ireland
- School
of Chemistry, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin D02 PN40, Ireland
| | - Jing Jing Wang
- AMBER
Research Centre and Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures
and Nanodevices (CRANN), Trinity College
Dublin, Dublin D02 PN40, Ireland
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