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Tu-Sekine B, Kim SF. The Inositol Phosphate System-A Coordinator of Metabolic Adaptability. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23126747. [PMID: 35743190 PMCID: PMC9223660 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23126747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2022] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
All cells rely on nutrients to supply energy and carbon building blocks to support cellular processes. Over time, eukaryotes have developed increasingly complex systems to integrate information about available nutrients with the internal state of energy stores to activate the necessary processes to meet the immediate and ongoing needs of the cell. One such system is the network of soluble and membrane-associated inositol phosphates that coordinate the cellular responses to nutrient uptake and utilization from growth factor signaling to energy homeostasis. In this review, we discuss the coordinated interactions of the inositol polyphosphates, inositol pyrophosphates, and phosphoinositides in major metabolic signaling pathways to illustrate the central importance of the inositol phosphate signaling network in nutrient responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Becky Tu-Sekine
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA;
| | - Sangwon F. Kim
- Department of Medicine and Neuroscience, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
- Correspondence:
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2
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Satheesh V, Tahir A, Li J, Lei M. Plant phosphate nutrition: sensing the stress. STRESS BIOLOGY 2022; 2:16. [PMID: 37676547 PMCID: PMC10441931 DOI: 10.1007/s44154-022-00039-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
Phosphorus (P) is obtained by plants as phosphate (Pi) from the soil and low Pi levels affects plant growth and development. Adaptation to low Pi condition entails sensing internal and external Pi levels and translating those signals to molecular and morphophysiological changes in the plant. In this review, we present findings related to local and systemin Pi sensing with focus the molecular mechanisms behind root system architectural changes and the impact of hormones and epigenetic mechanisms affecting those changes. We also present some of the recent advances in the Pi sensing and signaling mechanisms focusing on inositol pyrophosphate InsP8 and its interaction with SPX domain proteins to regulate the activity of the central regulator of the Pi starvation response, PHR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viswanathan Satheesh
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201602 China
| | - Ayesha Tahir
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Park Road, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Jinkai Li
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201602 China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049 China
| | - Mingguang Lei
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201602 China
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3
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Lee H, Park SJ, Hong S, Lim SW, Kim S. Deletion of IP6K1 in mice accelerates tumor growth by dysregulating the tumor-immune microenvironment. Anim Cells Syst (Seoul) 2022; 26:19-27. [PMID: 35308129 PMCID: PMC8928833 DOI: 10.1080/19768354.2022.2029560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A family of inositol hexakisphosphate kinases (IP6Ks) catalyzes the production of inositol pyrophosphate IP7 (5-diphosphoinositolpentakisphosphate) which is known to modulate various biological events such as cell growth. While targeting IP6K1 in various cancer cells has been well reported to control cancer cell motility and invasiveness, the role of host IP6K1 in tumor progression remains unknown. By using a syngeneic MC38 murine mouse colon carcinoma model, here we examined how host IP6K1 in the tumor microenvironment influences tumor growth. In IP6K1 knockout (KO) mice, the growth of MC38 tumor cells was markedly accelerated and host survival was significantly shortened compared with wild-type (WT). Our flow cytometric analysis revealed that tumors grown in IP6K1 KO mice had lower immune suppressive myeloid cells and M1 polarized macrophages. Notably, infiltration of both antigen-presenting dendritic cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes into the tumor tissues was remarkably abrogated in IP6K1 KO condition. These studies suggest that enhanced tumor growth in IP6K1 KO mice resulted from reduced anti-tumor immunity due to disturbed immune cell actions in the tumor microenvironment. In conclusion, we demonstrate that host IP6K1 acts as a tumor suppressor, most likely by fine-tuning diverse tumor-immune cell interactions, which might have implications for improving the host response against cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haein Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Ju Park
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Sehoon Hong
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Seol-Wa Lim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Seyun Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
- KAIST Institute for the BioCentury, KAIST, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
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4
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Lee S, Park BB, Kwon H, Kim V, Jeon JS, Lee R, Subedi M, Lim T, Ha H, An D, Kim J, Kim D, Kim SK, Kim S, Byun Y. TNP and its analogs: Modulation of IP6K and CYP3A4 inhibition. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2021; 37:269-279. [PMID: 34894957 PMCID: PMC8667942 DOI: 10.1080/14756366.2021.2000404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Inositol hexakisphosphate kinase (IP6K) is an important mammalian enzyme involved in various biological processes such as insulin signalling and blood clotting. Recent analyses on drug metabolism and pharmacokinetic properties on TNP (N2-(m-trifluorobenzyl), N6-(p-nitrobenzyl)purine), a pan-IP6K inhibitor, have suggested that it may inhibit cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes and induce unwanted drug-drug interactions in the liver. In this study, we confirmed that TNP inhibits CYP3A4 in type I binding mode more selectively than the other CYP450 isoforms. In an effort to find novel purine-based IP6K inhibitors with minimal CYP3A4 inhibition, we designed and synthesised 15 TNP analogs. Structure-activity relationship and biochemical studies, including ADP-Glo kinase assay and quantification of cell-based IP7 production, showed that compound 9 dramatically reduced CYP3A4 inhibition while retaining IP6K-inhibitory activity. Compound 9 can be a tool molecule for structural optimisation of purine-based IP6K inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seulgi Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, KAIST, Daejeon, South Korea
| | | | - Hongmok Kwon
- College of Pharmacy, Korea University, Sejong, South Korea
| | - Vitchan Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jang Su Jeon
- College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Rowoon Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Milan Subedi
- College of Pharmacy, Korea University, Sejong, South Korea
| | - Taehyeong Lim
- College of Pharmacy, Korea University, Sejong, South Korea
| | - Hyunsoo Ha
- College of Pharmacy, Korea University, Sejong, South Korea
| | - Dongju An
- Department of Biological Sciences, KAIST, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Jaehoon Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, KAIST, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Donghak Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Sang Kyum Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Seyun Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, KAIST, Daejeon, South Korea.,KAIST Institute for the BioCentury, KAIST, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Youngjoo Byun
- Department of Biological Sciences, KAIST, Daejeon, South Korea.,Biomedical Research Center, Korea University Guro Hospital, Seoul, South Korea
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Ahn H, Roh JS, Lee S, Beon J, Lee B, Sohn DH, Kim S. Myeloid IPMK promotes the resolution of serum transfer-induced arthritis in mice. Anim Cells Syst (Seoul) 2021; 25:219-226. [PMID: 34408810 PMCID: PMC8366620 DOI: 10.1080/19768354.2021.1952305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by widespread joint inflammation, which leads to joint damage, disability, and mortality. Among the several types of immune cells, myeloid cells such as macrophages are critical for controlling the pathogenesis of RA. Inositol phosphates are water-soluble signaling molecules, which are synthesized by a series of enzymes including inositol phosphate kinases. Previous studies revealed actions of inositol phosphates and their metabolic enzymes in the modulation of inflammation such as Toll-like receptor-triggered innate immunity. However, the physiological roles of inositol polyphosphate (IP) metabolism in the regulation of RA remain largely uncharacterized. Therefore, our study sought to determine the role of inositol polyphosphate multikinase (IPMK), a key enzyme for IP metabolism and various cellular signaling control mechanisms, in mediating RA. Using myeloid cell-specific IPMK knockout (KO) mice, arthritis was induced via intraperitoneal K/BxN serum injection, after which disease severity was evaluated. Both wild-type and IPMK KO mice developed similar RA phenotypes; however, conditional deletion of IPMK in myeloid cells led to elevated arthritis scores during the resolution phase, suggesting that IPMK deficiency in myeloid cells impairs the resolution of inflammation. Bone marrow-derived IPMK KO macrophages exhibited no apparent defects in immunoglobulin Fc receptor (FcR) activation, osteoclast differentiation, or resolvin signaling. Taken together, our findings suggest that myeloid IPMK is a key determinant of RA resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyoungjoon Ahn
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Korea
| | - Jong Seong Roh
- Department of Herbal Prescription, College of Korean Medicine, Daegu Haany University, Gyeongsan, Korea
| | - Seulgi Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Korea
| | - Jiyoon Beon
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Korea
| | - Beomgu Lee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan, Korea
| | - Dong Hyun Sohn
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan, Korea
| | - Seyun Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Korea.,KAIST Institute for the BioCentury, KAIST, Daejeon, Korea
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6
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Lee S, Beon J, Kim MG, Kim S. Inositol polyphosphate multikinase in adipocytes is dispensable for regulating energy metabolism and whole body metabolic homeostasis. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2020; 319:E401-E409. [PMID: 32634320 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00030.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Adipose tissue plays a central role in regulating whole body energy and glucose homeostasis at both organ and systemic levels. Inositol polyphosphates, such as 5-diphosphoinositol pentakisphosphate, reportedly control adipocyte functions and energy expenditure. However, the physiological roles of the inositol polyphosphate (IP) pathway in the adipose tissue are not yet fully defined. The aim of the present study was to test the hypothesis that inositol polyphosphate multikinase (IPMK), a key enzyme in the IP metabolism, plays a critical role in adipose tissue biology and obesity. We generated adipocyte-specific IPMK knockout (Ipmk AKO) mice and evaluated metabolic phenotypes by measuring fat accumulation, glucose homeostasis, and insulin sensitivity in adult mice fed either a regular-chow diet or high-fat diet (HFD). Despite substantial reduction of IPMK, Ipmk AKO mice exhibited normal glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity and did not show changes in fat accumulation in response to HFD-feeding. In addition, loss of IPMK had no major impact on thermogenic processes in response to cold exposure. Collectively, these findings suggest that adipocyte IPMK is dispensable for normal adipose tissue and its physiological functions in whole body metabolism, suggesting the complex roles that inositol polyphosphate metabolism has in the regulation of adipose tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seulgi Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Korea
| | - Jiyoon Beon
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Korea
| | - Min-Gyu Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Korea
| | - Seyun Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Korea
- KAIST Institute for the BioCentury, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Korea
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Inositol Pyrophosphates: Signaling Molecules with Pleiotropic Actions in Mammals. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25092208. [PMID: 32397291 PMCID: PMC7249018 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25092208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Inositol pyrophosphates (PP-IPs) such as 5-diphosphoinositol pentakisphosphate (5-IP7) are inositol metabolites containing high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds. Biosynthesis of PP-IPs is mediated by IP6 kinases (IP6Ks) and PPIP5 kinases (PPIP5Ks), which transfer phosphate to inositol hexakisphosphate (IP6). Pleiotropic actions of PP-IPs are involved in many key biological processes, including growth, vesicular remodeling, and energy homeostasis. PP-IPs function to regulate their target proteins through allosteric interactions or protein pyrophosphorylation. This review summarizes the current understanding of how PP-IPs control mammalian cellular signaling networks in physiology and disease.
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Kim MG, Zhang S, Park H, Park SJ, Kim S, Chung C. Inositol hexakisphosphate kinase-1 is a key mediator of prepulse inhibition and short-term fear memory. Mol Brain 2020; 13:72. [PMID: 32381051 PMCID: PMC7206715 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-020-00615-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Inositol phosphate metabolism has emerged as one of the key players in synaptic transmission. Previous studies have shown that the deletion of inositol hexakisphosphate kinase 1 (IP6K1), which is responsible for inositol pyrophosphate biosynthesis, alters probability of presynaptic vesicle release and short-term facilitation of glutamatergic synapses in mouse hippocampus. However, the behavioral and cognitive functions regulated by IP6K1 remain largely elusive. In this study, IP6K1-knockout mice exhibited decreased prepulse inhibition with no defects in Y-maze and elevated plus maze tests. Interestingly, IP6K1 knockout led to impaired short-term memory formation in a contextual fear memory retrieval test with no effect on long-term memory. Further, both hippocampal long-term potentiation and long-term depression in IP6K1-knockout mice were similar to those in the wild-type control. Taken together, the findings in this study suggest the physiological roles of IP6K1 and the associated inositol pyrophosphate metabolism in regulating sensorimotor gating as well as short-term memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min-Gyu Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Korea
| | - Seungjae Zhang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029, Korea
| | - Hoyong Park
- Department of Biological Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029, Korea
| | - Seung Ju Park
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Korea
| | - Seyun Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Korea. .,KAIST Institute for the BioCentury, KAIST, Daejeon, 34141, Korea.
| | - ChiHye Chung
- Department of Biological Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029, Korea.
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9
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Park SJ, Park H, Kim MG, Zhang S, Park SE, Kim S, Chung C. Inositol Pyrophosphate Metabolism Regulates Presynaptic Vesicle Cycling at Central Synapses. iScience 2020; 23:101000. [PMID: 32252022 PMCID: PMC7132149 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2020.101000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The coordination of synaptic vesicle exocytosis and endocytosis supports neurotransmitter release from presynaptic terminals. Although inositol pyrophosphates, such as 5-diphosphoinositol pentakisphosphate (5-IP7), are versatile signaling metabolites in many biological events, physiological actions of 5-IP7 on synaptic membrane vesicle trafficking remain unclear. Here, we investigated the role of 5-IP7 in synaptic transmission in hippocampal brain slices from inositol hexakisphosphate kinase 1 (Ip6k1)-knockout mice. We found that presynaptic release probability was significantly increased in Ip6k1-knockout neurons, implying enhanced activity-dependent synaptic vesicle exocytosis. Expression of wild-type but not catalytically inactive IP6K1 in the Ip6k1-knockout hippocampus restored the altered presynaptic release probability. Moreover, Ip6k1-knockout neurons were insensitive to folimycin, a vacuolar ATPase inhibitor, and dynasore, a dynamin inhibitor, suggesting marked impairment in synaptic endocytosis during exocytosis. Our findings collectively establish that IP6K1 and its product, 5-IP7, act as key physiological determinants for inhibition of presynaptic vesicle exocytosis and stimulation of endocytosis at central synapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung Ju Park
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Korea
| | - Hoyong Park
- Department of Biological Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Min-Gyu Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Korea
| | - Seungjae Zhang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Seung Eun Park
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Korea
| | - Seyun Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Korea; KAIST Institute for the BioCentury, KAIST, Daejeon 34141, Korea.
| | - ChiHye Chung
- Department of Biological Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea.
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Nakamura N, Vijay V, Desai VG, Hansen DK, Han T, Chang CW, Chen YC, Harrouk W, McIntyre B, Foster PM, Fuscoe JC, Inselman AL. Transcript profiling in the testes and prostates of postnatal day 30 Sprague-Dawley rats exposed prenatally and lactationally to 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone. Reprod Toxicol 2018; 82:111-123. [PMID: 30316929 PMCID: PMC6434700 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2018.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2018] [Revised: 09/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone (HMB) is an ultraviolet light-absorbing compound that is used in sunscreens, cosmetics and plastics. HMB has been reported to have weak estrogenic activity by in vivo and in vitro studies, making it a chemical with potential reproductive concern. To explore if prenatal and lactational HMB exposure alters gene expression profiles of the developing reproductive organs, we performed microarray analysis using the prostate and testis of postnatal day (PND) 30 male Sprague-Dawley rats offspring exposed to 0, 3000, or 30,000 ppm of HMB from gestational day 6 through PND 21. Gene expression profiles of the prostate and testis were differentially affected by HMB dose with significant alterations observed at the 30,000 ppm HMB group. Tissue-specific gene expression was also identified. These genes, whose expression was altered by HMB exposure, may be considered as candidate biomarker(s) for testicular or prostatic toxicity; however, further studies are necessary to explore this potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriko Nakamura
- Division of Systems Biology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, United States.
| | - Vikrant Vijay
- Division of Systems Biology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, United States
| | - Varsha G Desai
- Division of Systems Biology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, United States
| | - Deborah K Hansen
- Division of Systems Biology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, United States
| | - Tao Han
- Division of Systems Biology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, United States
| | - Ching-Wei Chang
- Division of Bioinformatics and Biostatistics, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, United States
| | - Yu-Chuan Chen
- Division of Bioinformatics and Biostatistics, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, United States
| | - Wafa Harrouk
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD 20993, United States
| | - Barry McIntyre
- National Toxicology Program, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, United States
| | - Paul M Foster
- National Toxicology Program, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, United States
| | - James C Fuscoe
- Division of Systems Biology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, United States
| | - Amy L Inselman
- Division of Systems Biology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, United States
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