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de Almeida-Antunes NA, Sampaio ACS, Crego MAB, López-Caneda EG. Tackling addictive behaviors through memory suppression: A scoping review and perspective. ALCOHOL, CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 48:1421-1442. [PMID: 38844789 DOI: 10.1111/acer.15381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 05/04/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 08/09/2024]
Abstract
Forgetting is often viewed as a human frailty. However, over the years, it has been considered an adaptive process that allows people to avoid retrieval of undesirable memories, preventing them from suffering and discomfort. Evidence shows that the ability to suppress memories is affected by several psychopathological conditions characterized by persistent unwanted thoughts, including anxiety and posttraumatic stress disorders. Nevertheless, memory suppression (MS) mechanisms in addiction-a clinical condition characterized by recurrent drug-related thoughts that contribute to repeated drug use-have received little attention so far. Addiction theories reveal that drugs change behavior by working on memory systems, particularly on declarative memory, which is related to the retrieval and encoding of drug-related memories. In this review, the main behavioral and neurofunctional findings concerning the Think/No-Think task-an adaptation of the classical Go/No-Go tasks typically used to evaluate the suppression of motor response-are presented. We then show how the memory system can be involved in the craving or anticipation/preoccupation stage of the addiction cycle. Subsequently, the study of MS in the context of addictive behaviors is highlighted as a promising approach for gaining knowledge about the mechanisms contributing to the continuation of addiction. Finally, we discuss how interventions aiming to strengthen this ability could impact the anticipation/preoccupation stage by (i) reducing the accessibility of drug-related memories, (ii) decreasing craving and attention toward drug-related stimuli, and (iii) improving overall inhibition abilities. In conclusion, this review aims to illustrate how the study of MS may be a valuable approach to enhance our understanding of substance use disorders by unveiling the underlying cognitive and neural mechanisms involved, which could have important implications for addiction treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Adriana Conceição Soares Sampaio
- Psychological Neuroscience Laboratory (PNL), Psychology Research Center (CIPsi), School of Psychology, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
| | - Manuel Alberto Barreiro Crego
- Psychological Neuroscience Laboratory (PNL), Psychology Research Center (CIPsi), School of Psychology, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
| | - Eduardo Guillermo López-Caneda
- Psychological Neuroscience Laboratory (PNL), Psychology Research Center (CIPsi), School of Psychology, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
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2
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Satish A, Hellerstedt R, Anderson MC, Bergström ZM. Memory control immediately improves unpleasant emotions associated with autobiographical memories of past immoral actions. Cogn Emot 2024:1-16. [PMID: 38653497 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2024.2342390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
The ability to stop unwanted memories from coming to mind is theorised to be essential for maintaining good mental health. People can employ intentional strategies to prevent conscious intrusions of negative memories, and repeated attempts to stop retrieval both reduces the frequency of intrusions and improves subsequent emotions elicited by those memories. However, it is still unknown whether memory control can improve negative emotions immediately, at the time control is attempted. It is also not clear which strategy is most beneficial for emotion regulation; clearing the mind of any thoughts of negative memories via direct suppression, or substituting memory recall with alternative thoughts. Here, we provide novel evidence that memory control immediately regulates negative emotions associated with autobiographical memories of morally wrong actions. Repeated control significantly improved negative emotions over time, regardless of the strategy used to implement control. Thought substitution involving either positive diversionary thinking or counterfactual thinking both induced positive feelings, whereas direct suppression neutralised emotions, regardless of whether memories were positive or negative. These empirical findings have implications for clinical practice as they indicate that memory control strategies could be effective emotion regulation methods for real-world intrusive memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akul Satish
- Medical Research Council - Cognitive and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- School of Psychology, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
| | - Robin Hellerstedt
- School of Psychology, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
- Laboratory for Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Biomedical Technology, The Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Michael C Anderson
- Medical Research Council - Cognitive and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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3
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Ashton SM, Gagnepain P, Davidson P, Hellerstedt R, Satish A, Smeets T, Quaedflieg CWEM. The Index of Intrusion Control (IIC): Capturing individual variability in intentional intrusion control in the laboratory. Behav Res Methods 2024; 56:4061-4072. [PMID: 38291222 PMCID: PMC11133188 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-024-02345-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
Intrusive memories can be downregulated using intentional memory control, as measured via the Think/No-Think paradigm. In this task, participants retrieve or suppress memories in response to an associated reminder cue. After each suppression trial, participants rate whether the association intruded into awareness. Previous research has found that repeatedly exerting intentional control over memory intrusions reduces their frequency. This decrease is often summarised with a linear index, which may miss more complex patterns characterising the temporal dynamics of intrusion control. The goal of this paper is to propose a novel metric of intrusion control that captures those dynamic changes over time as a single index. Results from a mega-analysis of published datasets revealed that the change in intrusion frequencies across time is not purely linear, but also includes non-linear dynamics that seem best captured by a log function of the number of suppression attempts. To capture those linear and non-linear dynamics, we propose the Index of Intrusion Control (IIC), which relies on the integral of intrusion changes across suppression attempts. Simulations revealed that the IIC best captured the linear and non-linear dynamics of intrusion suppression when compared with other linear or non-linear indexes of control, such as the regression slope or Spearman correlation, respectively. Our findings demonstrate how the IIC may therefore act as a more reliable metric to capture individual differences in intrusion control, and examine the role of non-linear dynamics characterizing the conscious access to unwanted memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie M Ashton
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands.
| | - Pierre Gagnepain
- Neuropsychologie et Imagerie de la Mémoire Humaine, Normandie Université, UNICAEN, PSL Research University, EPHE, INSERM, U1077, CHU de Caen, GIP Cyceron, Caen, France
| | - Per Davidson
- Department of Psychology, Kristianstad University, Kristianstad, Sweden
| | - Robin Hellerstedt
- Centre for Technological Biology, Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Akul Satish
- Medical Research Council - Cognitive and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Tom Smeets
- Department of Medical and Clinical Psychology, Center of Research on Psychological disorders and Somatic diseases (CoRPS), Tilburg University, Tilburg, the Netherlands
| | - Conny W E M Quaedflieg
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
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Ashton SM, Smeets T, Quaedflieg CW. Controlling intrusive thoughts of future fears under stress. Neurobiol Stress 2023; 27:100582. [PMID: 38025283 PMCID: PMC10656271 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2023.100582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Negative outlooks of our future may foster unwanted and intrusive thoughts. To some extent, individuals have control over their ability to suppress intrusions and downregulate their frequency. Acute stress impairs intentional suppression, leading to an increased frequency of intrusions. The aim of this study was to gain insight into the mechanism underlying stress-induced impairments in intentional suppression of intrusions by investigating the combined and independent roles of the two major stress hormones, noradrenaline and cortisol. Healthy participants (N = 181) were administered propranolol (to block the noradrenergic response), metyrapone (to block the cortisol response), or a placebo before being exposed to the Maastricht Acute Stress Test. Intrusive thoughts of autobiographical future fears were then measured via the Imagine/No-Imagine task. Results demonstrated that the stress response was successfully altered because of the drug and stress manipulations. In all groups, repeated suppression of future fears reduced intrusions. Across the sample, an enhanced decrease over time was associated with greater attenuation of anxiety towards the related fears. The groups did not differ in the total frequency of intrusions. Though, trait anxiety increased the total number of intrusions. Our findings show that stress hormones did not influence the ability to suppress intrusions. However, our results do add support to previous research linking anxiety to memory control deficits. When using autobiographical content, future research should focus on the quality and characteristics of the individual memories to explain more of the variation observed in intentional memory control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie M. Ashton
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Tom Smeets
- Department of Medical and Clinical Psychology, Center of Research on Psychological Disorders and Somatic Diseases (CoRPS), Tilburg University, the Netherlands
| | - Conny W.E.M. Quaedflieg
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
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Bobrowicz K, Thibaut JP. The Development of Flexible Problem Solving: An Integrative Approach. J Intell 2023; 11:119. [PMID: 37367522 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence11060119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 06/03/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Flexible problem solving, the ability to deal with currently goal-irrelevant information that may have been goal-relevant in previous, similar situations, plays a prominent role in cognitive development and has been repeatedly investigated in developmental research. However, this research, spanning from infancy to the school years, lacks a unifying framework, obscuring the developmental timing of flexible problem solving. Therefore, in this review paper, previous findings are gathered, organized, and integrated under a common framework to unveil how and when flexible problem solving develops. It is showed that the development of flexible problem solving coincides with increases in executive functions, that is, inhibition, working memory and task switching. The analysis of previous findings shows that dealing with goal-irrelevant, non-salient information received far more attention than generalizing in the presence of goal-irrelevant, salient information. The developmental timing of the latter can only be inferred from few transfer studies, as well as executive functions, planning and theory of mind research, to highlight gaps in knowledge and sketch out future research directions. Understanding how transfer in the presence of seemingly relevant but truly irrelevant information develops has implications for well-balanced participation in information societies, early and lifespan education, and investigating the evolutionary trajectory of flexible problem solving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Bobrowicz
- Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Sciences, University of Luxembourg, 4366 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Jean-Pierre Thibaut
- LEAD-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR-5022, University of Burgundy, 21000 Dijon, France
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Cortisol reactivity impairs suppression-induced forgetting. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2022; 142:105774. [PMID: 35512558 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
To some extent, we can shape our recollections by intentionally remembering certain experiences while trying to forget others, for example, by intentional suppression. Acute stress impairs suppression-induced forgetting of memories. It is unclear, however, whether these deficits are a direct consequence of the acute stress-induced cortisol response. The present study was designed to examine the stress-induced impairment in suppression-induced forgetting in a subgroup of cortisol responders. We exposed healthy participants to a stress (n = 55) or no-stress control (n = 32) version of the Maastricht Acute Stress Test before they performed the Think / No-Think task. Here, participants aimed to repeatedly retrieve or suppress memories of previously learned cue-target video clips to mimic the complexity of episodic memories. Results on the subsequent memory test revealed that, while the no-stress controls and cortisol non-responders demonstrated suppression-induced forgetting, this effect was absent in cortisol responders. Moreover, the magnitude of suppression-induced forgetting was negatively correlated to stress-induced cortisol increases. The current study extends findings on stress-induced impairments in suppression-induced forgetting by specifically focusing on cortisol reactivity. Furthermore, our findings show the importance of individual differences in cortisol responses as a driving mechanism behind stress-induced alterations in our capacity to actively control our memory.
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Simeonov L, Peniket M, Das R. No-think, No drink? Assessing the ability of reconsolidation interference by intentional forgetting to suppress alcohol memories in hazardous drinkers. Behav Res Ther 2022; 152:104055. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2022.104055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Revised: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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EEG evidence that morally relevant autobiographical memories can be suppressed. COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2022; 22:1290-1310. [PMID: 35986196 PMCID: PMC9622558 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-022-01029-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Remembering unpleasant events can trigger negative feelings. Fortunately, research indicates that unwanted retrieval can be suppressed to prevent memories from intruding into awareness, improving our mental state. The current scientific understanding of retrieval suppression, however, is based mostly on simpler memories, such as associations between words or pictures, which may not reflect how people control unpleasant memory intrusions in everyday life. Here, we investigated the neural and behavioural dynamics of suppressing personal and emotional autobiographical memories using a modified version of the Think/No-Think task. We asked participants to suppress memories of their own past immoral actions, which were hypothesised to be both highly intrusive and motivating to suppress. We report novel evidence from behavioural, ERP, and EEG oscillation measures that autobiographical memory retrieval can be suppressed and suggest that autobiographical suppression recruits similar neurocognitive mechanisms as suppression of simple laboratory associations. Suppression did fail sometimes, and EEG oscillations indicated that such memory intrusions occurred from lapses in sustained control. Importantly, however, participants improved at limiting intrusions with repeated practice. Furthermore, both behavioural and EEG evidence indicated that intentional suppression may be more difficult for memories of our morally wrong actions than memories of our morally right actions. The findings elucidate the neurocognitive correlates of autobiographical retrieval suppression and have implications for theories of morally motivated memory control.
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Davidson P, Pace-Schott E. Go to Bed and You MIGHT Feel Better in the Morning—the Effect of Sleep on Affective Tone and Intrusiveness of Emotional Memories. CURRENT SLEEP MEDICINE REPORTS 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s40675-020-00200-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Purpose of Review
It is important to examine what effect sleep has after an emotional experience. More knowledge about this topic could help inform us whether there are any potential sleep interventions that could help make sure that memories of negative emotional experiences are processed in the most adaptive manner possible.
Recent Findings
Findings on the role of sleep in altering reactivity to emotional stimuli have been highly varied, with significant findings in opposite directions. A new exciting development in the field is several studies finding that sleep seems to make memories of negative experiences less intrusive.
Summary
This review has mainly aimed to give an overview of the field, and of which issues need to be resolved. We argue for there being a strong need for standardization of how data are analyzed and presented, as well as for better methods for determining to what extent the effects of sleep are specific for a particular memory, or represent general changes in emotional reactivity.
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Schechtman E, Lampe A, Wilson BJ, Kwon E, Anderson MC, Paller KA. Sleep reactivation did not boost suppression-induced forgetting. Sci Rep 2021; 11:1383. [PMID: 33446812 PMCID: PMC7809483 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-80671-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Sleep's role in memory consolidation is widely acknowledged, but its role in weakening memories is still debated. Memory weakening is evolutionary beneficial and makes an integral contribution to cognition. We sought evidence on whether sleep-based memory reactivation can facilitate memory suppression. Participants learned pairs of associable words (e.g., DIET-CREAM) and were then exposed to hint words (e.g., DIET) and instructed to either recall ("think") or suppress ("no-think") the corresponding target words (e.g., CREAM). As expected, suppression impaired retention when tested immediately after a 90-min nap. To test if reactivation could selectively enhance memory suppression during sleep, we unobtrusively presented one of two sounds conveying suppression instructions during sleep, followed by hint words. Results showed that targeted memory reactivation did not enhance suppression-induced forgetting. Although not predicted, post-hoc analyses revealed that sleep cues strengthened memory, but only for suppressed pairs that were weakly encoded before sleep. The results leave open the question of whether memory suppression can be augmented during sleep, but suggest strategies for future studies manipulating memory suppression during sleep. Additionally, our findings support the notion that sleep reactivation is particularly beneficial for weakly encoded information, which may be prioritized for consolidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eitan Schechtman
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA.
| | - Anna Lampe
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Brianna J Wilson
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Eunbi Kwon
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Michael C Anderson
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 7EF, UK
| | - Ken A Paller
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
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Davidson P, Jönsson P, Carlsson I, Pace-Schott E. Does Sleep Selectively Strengthen Certain Memories Over Others Based on Emotion and Perceived Future Relevance? Nat Sci Sleep 2021; 13:1257-1306. [PMID: 34335065 PMCID: PMC8318217 DOI: 10.2147/nss.s286701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Sleep has been found to have a beneficial effect on memory consolidation. It has furthermore frequently been suggested that sleep does not strengthen all memories equally. The first aim of this review paper was to examine whether sleep selectively strengthens emotional declarative memories more than neutral ones. We examined this first by reviewing the literature focusing on sleep/wake contrasts, and then the literature on whether any specific factors during sleep preferentially benefit emotional memories, with a special focus on the often-suggested claim that rapid eye movement sleep primarily consolidates emotional memories. A second aim was to examine if sleep preferentially benefits memories based on other cues of future relevance such as reward, test-expectancy or different instructions during encoding. Once again, we first focused on studies comparing sleep and wake groups, and then on studies examining the contributions of specific factors during sleep (for each future relevance paradigm, respectively). The review revealed that although some support exists that sleep is more beneficial for certain kinds of memories based on emotion or other cues of future relevance, the majority of studies does not support such an effect. Regarding specific factors during sleep, our review revealed that no sleep variable has reliably been found to be specifically associated with the consolidation of certain kinds of memories over others based on emotion or other cues of future relevance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per Davidson
- Department of Psychology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.,Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Peter Jönsson
- School of Education and Environment, Centre for Psychology, Kristianstad University, Kristianstad, Sweden
| | | | - Edward Pace-Schott
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Charlestown, MA, USA
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