An emerging role for IQGAP1 in tight junction control

IQGAP3 Is an Important Mediator of Skin Inflammatory Diseases

IQGAP3 (IQ Motif Containing GTPase Activating Protein 3) is member of the IQGAP family of scaffold proteins, which are essential for assembling multiprotein complexes that coordinate various intracellular signaling pathways. Previous research has shown that IQGAP3 is overexpressed in psoriatic skin lesions. Given its involvement in processes like cell proliferation and chemokine signaling, we sought to explore its molecular role in driving the psoriatic phenotype of keratinocytes. By conducting transcriptome profiling of HaCaT keratinocytes, we identified numerous psoriasis-associated pathways that were affected when IQGAP3 was knocked down. These included alterations in NFkB signaling, EGFR signaling, activation of p38/MAPK and ERK1/ERK2, lipid metabolism, cytokine production, and the response to inflammatory cytokine stimulation. Real-time analysis further revealed changes in cell growth dynamics, including proliferation and wound healing. The balance between cell proliferation and apoptosis was altered, as were skin barrier functions and the production of IL-6 and IFNγ. Despite these significant findings, the diversity of the alterations observed in the knockdown cells led us to conclude that IQGAP3 may not be the best target for the therapeutic inhibition to normalize the phenotype of keratinocytes in psoriasis.

Identification of a novel disulfideptosis-related gene signature for prognostic implication in lower-grade gliomas

Lower-grade gliomas (GBMLGG) are common, fatal, and difficult-to-treat cancers. The current treatment choices have impressive efficacy constraints. As a result, the development of effective treatments and the identification of new therapeutic targets are urgent requirements. Disulfide metabolism is the cause of the non-apoptotic programmed cell death known as disulfideptosis, which was only recently discovered. The mRNA expression data and related clinical information of GBMLGG patients downloaded from public databases were used in this study to investigate the prognostic significance of genes involved in disulfideptosis. In the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) cohort, our findings showed that many disulfidptosis-related genes were expressed differently in normal and GBMLGG tissues. It was discovered that IQ motif-containing GTPase-activating protein 1 (IQGAP1) is a key gene that influences the outcome of GBMLGG. Besides, a nomogram model was built to foresee the visualization of GBMLGG patients. In addition, in vivo and in vitro validation of IQGAP1's cancer-promoting function was done. In conclusion, we discovered a gene signature associated with disulfideptosis that can effectively predict OS in GBMLGG patients. As a result, treating disulfideptosis may be a viable alternative for GBMLGG patients.

Diversity of Intercellular Communication Modes: A Cancer Biology Perspective

From the moment a cell is on the path to malignant transformation, its interaction with other cells from the microenvironment becomes altered. The flow of molecular information is at the heart of the cellular and systemic fate in tumors, and various processes participate in conveying key molecular information from or to certain cancer cells. For instance, the loss of tight junction molecules is part of the signal sent to cancer cells so that they are no longer bound to the primary tumors and are thus free to travel and metastasize. Upon the targeting of a single cell by a therapeutic drug, gap junctions are able to communicate death information to by-standing cells. The discovery of the importance of novel modes of cell-cell communication such as different types of extracellular vesicles or tunneling nanotubes is changing the way scientists look at these processes. However, are they all actively involved in different contexts at the same time or are they recruited to fulfill specific tasks? What does the multiplicity of modes mean for the overall progression of the disease? Here, we extend an open invitation to think about the overall significance of these questions, rather than engage in an elusive attempt at a systematic repertory of the mechanisms at play.

CDC42-IQGAP Interactions Scrutinized: New Insights into the Binding Properties of the GAP-Related Domain

The IQ motif-containing GTPase-activating protein (IQGAP) family composes of three highly-related and evolutionarily conserved paralogs (IQGAP1, IQGAP2 and IQGAP3), which fine tune as scaffolding proteins numerous fundamental cellular processes. IQGAP1 is described as an effector of CDC42, although its effector function yet re-mains unclear. Biophysical, biochemical and molecular dynamic simulation studies have proposed that IQGAP RASGAP-related domains (GRDs) bind to the switch regions and the insert helix of CDC42 in a GTP-dependent manner. Our kinetic and equilibrium studies have shown that IQGAP1 GRD binds, in contrast to its C-terminal 794 amino acids (called C794), CDC42 in a nucleotide-independent manner indicating a binding outside the switch regions. To resolve this discrepancy and move beyond the one-sided view of GRD, we carried out affinity measurements and a systematic mutational analysis of the interfacing residues between GRD and CDC42 based on the crystal structure of the IQGAP2 GRD-CDC42Q61L GTP complex. We determined a 100-fold lower affinity of the GRD1 of IQGAP1 and of GRD2 of IQGAP2 for CDC42 mGppNHp in comparison to C794/C795 proteins. Moreover, partial and major mutation of CDC42 switch regions substantially affected C794/C795 binding but only a little GRD1 and remarkably not at all the GRD2 binding. However, we clearly showed that GRD2 contributes to the overall affinity of C795 by using a 11 amino acid mutated GRD variant. Furthermore, the GRD1 binding to the CDC42 was abolished using specific point mutations within the insert helix of CDC42 clearly supporting the notion that CDC42 binding site(s) of IQGAP GRD lies outside the switch regions among others in the insert helix. Collectively, this study provides further evidence for a mechanistic framework model that is based on a multi-step binding process, in which IQGAP GRD might act as a ‘scaffolding domain’ by binding CDC42 irrespective of its nucleotide-bound forms, followed by other IQGAP domains downstream of GRD that act as an effector domain and is in charge for a GTP-dependent interaction with CDC42.

Selectivity Determinants of RHO GTPase Binding to IQGAPs

IQ motif-containing GTPase-activating proteins (IQGAPs) modulate a wide range of cellular processes by acting as scaffolds and driving protein components into distinct signaling networks. Their functional states have been proposed to be controlled by members of the RHO family of GTPases, among other regulators. In this study, we show that IQGAP1 and IQGAP2 can associate with CDC42 and RAC1-like proteins but not with RIF, RHOD, or RHO-like proteins, including RHOA. This seems to be based on the distribution of charged surface residues, which varies significantly among RHO GTPases despite their high sequence homology. Although effector proteins bind first to the highly flexible switch regions of RHO GTPases, additional contacts outside are required for effector activation. Sequence alignment and structural, mutational, and competitive biochemical analyses revealed that RHO GTPases possess paralog-specific residues outside the two highly conserved switch regions that essentially determine the selectivity of RHO GTPase binding to IQGAPs. Amino acid substitution of these specific residues in RHOA to the corresponding residues in RAC1 resulted in RHOA association with IQGAP1. Thus, electrostatics most likely plays a decisive role in these interactions.

Shuttling of cellular proteins between the plasma membrane and nucleus (Review)

Recently accumulated evidence has indicated that the nucleomembrane shuttling of cellular proteins is common, which provides new insight into the subcellular translocation and biological functions of proteins synthesized in the cytoplasm. The present study aimed to clarify the trafficking of proteins between the plasma membrane and nucleus. These proteins primarily consist of transmembrane receptors, membrane adaptor proteins, adhesive proteins, signal proteins and nuclear proteins, which contribute to proliferation, apoptosis, chemoresistance, adhesion, migration and gene expression. The proteins frequently undergo cross-talk, such as the interaction of transmembrane proteins with signal proteins. The transmembrane proteins undergo endocytosis, infusion into organelles or proteolysis into soluble forms for import into the nucleus, while nuclear proteins interact with membrane proteins or act as receptors. The nucleocytosolic translocation involves export or import through nuclear membrane pores by importin or exportin. Nuclear proteins generally interact with other transcription factors, and then binding to the promoter for gene expression, while membrane proteins are responsible for signal initiation by binding to other membrane and/or adaptor proteins. Protein translocation occurs in a cell-specific manner and is closely linked to cellular biological events. The present review aimed to improve understanding of cytosolic protein shuttling between the plasma membrane and nucleus and the associated signaling pathways.

Cdc42 activates paracellular transport in polarised submandibular gland cells

OBJECTIVE

The physiological expression of cell division cycle 42 (cdc42) in major salivary glands, and paracellular transport of fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran (FITC-dextran) in SMIE cells, which regulate cdc42 expression, was investigated to clarify the involvement of cdc42 in salivary production.

DESIGN

The physiological expression of cdc42 in the rat submandibular gland, parotid gland, sublingual gland, and SMIE cells was detected using SDS-PAGE and western blotting. The paracellular transport of FITC-dextran in transwells was compared in transfected SMIE cells, exhibiting up- or downregulated cdc42 expression.

RESULTS

Cdc42 was expressed in all major salivary glands and SMIE cells. SMIE cells transfected with the cdc42 plasmid had an increase efflux. In addition, SMIE cells transfected with the cdc42 siRNA showed decreased efflux.

CONCLUSION

We suggest that cdc42 enhances paracellular transport in salivary glands without any morphological changes, including cell-cell adhesion.

Role of IQGAP1 in Carcinogenesis

Scaffolding proteins can play important roles in cell signaling transduction. IQ motif-containing GTPase-activating protein 1 (IQGAP1) influences many cellular activities by scaffolding multiple key signaling pathways, including ones involved in carcinogenesis. Two decades of studies provide evidence that IQGAP1 plays an essential role in promoting cancer development. IQGAP1 is overexpressed in many types of cancer, and its overexpression in cancer is associated with lower survival of the cancer patient. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the literature regarding the oncogenic roles of IQGAP1. We start by describing the major cancer-related signaling pathways scaffolded by IQGAP1 and their associated cellular activities. We then describe clinical and molecular evidence for the contribution of IQGAP1 in different types of cancers. In the end, we review recent evidence implicating IQGAP1 in tumor-related immune responses. Given the critical role of IQGAP1 in carcinoma development, anti-tumor therapies targeting IQGAP1 or its associated signaling pathways could be beneficial for patients with many types of cancer.

α2β1 integrins spatially restrict Cdc42 activity to stabilise adherens junctions

Background

Keratinocytes form the main protective barrier in the skin to separate the underlying tissue from the external environment. In order to maintain this barrier, keratinocytes form robust junctions between neighbouring cells as well as with the underlying extracellular matrix. Cell–cell adhesions are mediated primarily through cadherin receptors, whereas the integrin family of transmembrane receptors is predominantly associated with assembly of matrix adhesions. Integrins have been shown to also localise to cell–cell adhesions, but their role at these sites remains unclear.

Results

Here we show that α2β1 integrins are enriched at mature keratinocyte cell–cell adhesions, where they play a crucial role in organising cytoskeletal networks to stabilize adherens junctions. Loss of α2β1 integrin has significant functional phenotypes associated with cell–cell adhesion destabilisation, including increased proliferation, reduced migration and impaired barrier function. Mechanistically, we show that α2β1 integrins suppress activity of Src and Shp2 at cell–cell adhesions leading to enhanced Cdc42–GDI interactions and stabilisation of junctions between neighbouring epithelial cells.

Conclusion

Our data reveals a new role for α2β1 integrins in controlling integrity of epithelial cell–cell adhesions.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12915-021-01054-9.

Generation of Rat Monoclonal Antibody for Human IQGAP1 by Immunization of Three-Dimensional-Cultured Cancer Cells

The scaffold protein IQ motif containing GTPase activating protein 1 (IQGAP1) is an adherens junction component in the epithelial tissue that binds many signaling and structural molecules to regulate biological processes. It is known that IQGAP1 is overexpressed in some tumors. In this study, we produced rat monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) through immunization of the lysate from three-dimensional (3D)-cultured DLD-1 cells to elucidate a characteristic feature of a tumor. In cancer research, 3D-cultured cancer cells are used as an intermediate model between in vitro cancer cell line cultures and in vivo tumors. Our results showed that mAb 7E11 recognized increasing antigen in the lysate of 3D-cultured cells comparing with two-dimensional-cultured cells, and its antigen is the human IQGAP1. Furthermore, we indicated that mAb 7E11 was used in immunoblotting, immunoprecipitation, and immunofluorescence staining. Therefore, it may be useful in the analysis of human cancer.

Anti-allergic drug azelastine suppresses colon tumorigenesis by directly targeting ARF1 to inhibit IQGAP1-ERK-Drp1-mediated mitochondrial fission

This study aimed to screen novel anticancer strategies from FDA-approved non-cancer drugs and identify potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for colorectal cancer (CRC).

Methods: A library consisting of 1056 FDA-approved drugs was screened for anticancer agents. WST-1, colony-formation, flow cytometry, and tumor xenograft assays were used to determine the anticancer effect of azelastine. Quantitative proteomics, confocal imaging, Western blotting and JC-1 assays were performed to examine the effects on mitochondrial pathways. The target protein of azelastine was analyzed and confirmed by DARTS, WST-1, Biacore and tumor xenograft assays. Immunohistochemistry, gain- and loss-of-function experiments, WST-1, colony-formation, immunoprecipitation, and tumor xenograft assays were used to examine the functional and clinical significance of ARF1 in colon tumorigenesis.

Results: Azelastine, a current anti-allergic drug, was found to exert a significant inhibitory effect on CRC cell proliferation in vitro and in vivo, but not on ARF1-deficient or ARF1-T48S mutant cells. ARF1 was identified as a direct target of azelastine. High ARF1 expression was associated with advanced stages and poor survival of CRC. ARF1 promoted colon tumorigenesis through its interaction with IQGAP1 and subsequent activation of ERK signaling and mitochondrial fission by enhancing the interaction of IQGAP1 with MEK and ERK. Mechanistically, azelastine bound to Thr-48 in ARF1 and repressed its activity, decreasing Drp1 phosphorylation. This, in turn, inhibited mitochondrial fission and suppressed colon tumorigenesis by blocking IQGAP1-ERK signaling.

Conclusions: This study provides the first evidence that azelastine may be novel therapeutics for CRC treatment. ARF1 promotes colon tumorigenesis, representing a promising biomarker and therapeutic target in CRC.

Duodenal Metatranscriptomics to Define Human and Microbial Functional Alterations Associated with Severe Obesity: A Pilot Study

Obesity is a multifactorial disorder, and the gut microbiome has been suggested to contribute to its onset. In order to better clarify the role of the microbiome in obesity, we evaluated the metatranscriptome in duodenal biopsies from a cohort of 23 adult severely obese and lean control subjects using next generation sequencing. Our aim was to provide a general picture of the duodenal metatranscriptome associated with severe obesity. We found altered expressions of human and microbial genes in the obese compared to lean subjects, with most of the gene alterations being present in the carbohydrate, protein, and lipid metabolic pathways. Defects were also present in several human genes involved in epithelial intestinal cells differentiation and function, as well as in the immunity/inflammation pathways. Moreover, the microbial taxa abundance inferred by our transcriptomic data differed in part from the data that we previously evaluated by 16S rRNA in 13/23 individuals of our cohort, particularly concerning the Firmicutes and Proteobacteria phyla abundances. In conclusion, our pilot study provides the first taxonomic and functional characterization of duodenal microbiota in severely obese subjects and lean controls. Our findings suggest that duodenal microbiome and human genes both play a role in deregulating metabolic pathways, likely affecting energy metabolism and thus contributing to the obese phenotype.

Retinal Pigment Epithelium Replacement Therapy for Age-Related Macular Degeneration: Are We There Yet?

Pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) are a potential replacement tissue source for degenerative diseases. Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a blinding disease triggered by degeneration of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), a monolayer tissue that functionally supports retinal photoreceptors. Recently published clinical and preclinical studies have tested PSC-derived RPE as a potential treatment for AMD. Multiple approaches have been used to manufacture RPE cells, to validate them functionally, to confirm their safety profile, and to deliver them to patients either as suspension or as a monolayer patch. Since most of these studies are at an early regulatory approval stage, the primary outcome has been to determine the safety of RPE transplants in patients. However, preliminary signs of efficacy were observed in a few patients. Here, we review the current progress in the PSC-derived RPE transplantation field and provide a comparative assessment of various approaches under development as potential therapeutics for AMD.

Impact of N-Acyl-Homoserine Lactones, Quorum Sensing Molecules, on Gut Immunity

Among numerous molecules found in the gut ecosystem, quorum sensing (QS) molecules represent an overlooked part that warrants highlighting. QS relies on the release of small molecules (auto-inducers) by bacteria that accumulate in the environment depending on bacterial cell density. These molecules not only are sensed by the microbial community but also interact with host cells and contribute to gut homeostasis. It therefore appears entirely appropriate to highlight the role of these molecules on the immune system in dysbiosis-associated inflammatory conditions where the bacterial populations are imbalanced. Here, we intent to focus on one of the most studied QS molecule family, namely, the type I auto-inducers represented by N-acyl-homoserine lactones (AHL). First described in pathogens such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, these molecules have also been found in commensals and have been recently described within the complex microbial communities of the mammalian intestinal tract. In this mini-review, we will expound on this emergent field of research. We will first recall evidence on AHL structure, synthesis, receptors, and functions regarding interbacterial communication. Then, we will discuss their interactions with the host and particularly with agents of the innate and adaptive gut mucosa immunity. This will reveal how this new set of molecules, driven by microbial imbalance, can interact with inflammation pathways and could be a potential target in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The discovery of the general impact of these compounds on the detection of the bacterial quorum and on the dynamic and immune responses of eukaryotic cells opens up a new field of pathophysiology.

Knockdown of IQGAP-1 Enhances Tight Junctions and Prevents P. aeruginosa Invasion of Human Corneal Epithelial Cells

PURPOSE

To determine the role of IQ-domain GTPase-activating protein1 (IQGAP-1) in tight junctions of human corneal epithelial cells (HCECs) and its effect against P. aeruginosa (PAK) invasion.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Primary human corneal epithelial cells (HCECs), immortalized HCECs, and IQGAP-1 RNA knockdown HCECs (siHCECs) were used. Confocal microscopy, transepithelial electrical resistance (TER), trypan blue exclusion assay and gentamicin invasion assay were done.

RESULTS

In primary and immortalized HCECs, IQGAP-1 co-localized with zonular occludin-1 (ZO-1) and actin. Enhanced actin and ZO-1 aggregation were seen in siHCECs. IQGAP-1 knockdown significantly increased TER of immortalized HCECs (P < .0001). Cell viability after PAK infection increased for siHCECs for up to 4 h after infection. PAK intracellular invasion was significantly lowered by 50% in siHCECs at 1 h post-infection.

CONCLUSION

IQGAP-1 knockdown increased the strength and integrity of tight junctions and may provide an early protective effect against P. aeruginosa invasion.

Membrane and Actin Tethering Transitions Help IQGAP1 Coordinate GTPase and Lipid Messenger Signaling

The coordination of lipid messenger signaling with cytoskeletal regulation is central to many organelle-specific regulatory processes. This coupling often depends on the function of multidomain scaffolds that orchestrate transient interactions among multiple signaling intermediates and regulatory proteins on organelles. The number of possible scaffold interaction partners and the ability for these interactions to occur at different timescales makes investigations of scaffold functions challenging. This work employs live cell imaging to probe how the multidomain scaffold IQ motif containing GTPase activating protein 1 (IQGAP1) coordinates the activities of proteins affecting local actin polymerization, membrane processing, and phosphoinositide signaling. Using endosomes that are confined by a local actin network as a model system, we demonstrate that IQGAP1 can transition between different actin and endosomal membrane tethered states. Fast scaffold binding/disassociation transitions are shown to be driven by interactions between C-terminal scaffold domains and Rho GTPases at the membrane. Fluctuations in these binding modes are linked to negative regulation of actin polymerization. Although this control governs core elements of IQGAP1 dynamics, actin binding by the N-terminal calponin homology domain of the scaffold is shown to help the scaffold track the temporal development of endosome membrane markers, implying actin associations bolster membrane and actin coordination. Importantly, these effects are not easily distilled purely through standard (static) co-localization analyses or traditional pathway perturbations methods and were resolved by performing dynamic correlation and multiple regression analyses of IQGAP1 scaffold mutants. Using these capabilities with pharmacological inhibition, we provide evidence that membrane tethering is dependent on the activities of the lipid kinase phosphoinositide 3-kinase in addition to the Rho GTPases Rac1 and Cdc42. Overall, these methods and results point to a scaffold tethering mechanism that allows IQGAP1 to help control the amplitude of phosphoinositide lipid messenger signaling by coordinating signaling intermediate activities with the development and disassembly of local actin cytoskeletal networks.

Characterization of pUL5, an HCMV protein interacting with the cellular protein IQGAP1

Among the Herpesviridae, human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) owns the largest genome and displays a huge coding potential. Here, we characterized the UL5 gene product (pUL5) of the clinical isolate TR strain. The protein was predicted as a 166-amino-acid membrane protein with a theoretical mass of 19 kDa. Recombinant virus expressing pUL5 with a tag allowed the identification of two pUL5 non-glycosylated species of approximately 19 and 9 kDa, expressed with early and late kinetic respectively. Experiments in infection confirmed that the lower molecular weight species was translated from an internal ATG in the UL5 open reading frame. Confocal microscopy analysis showed that pUL5 localized within the assembly compartment, but is not incorporated in the virion, as shown by Western blot on purified viral particles. Finally, pull-down experiments coupled with mass spectrometry analysis identified IQGAP1 as a pUL5 interactor, giving new hints on possible roles of pUL5 during HCMV infection.

Simvastatin preparations promote PDGF-BB secretion to repair LPS-induced endothelial injury through the PDGFRβ/PI3K/Akt/IQGAP1 signalling pathway

Endothelial barrier dysfunction is a critical pathophysiological process of sepsis. Impaired endothelial cell migration is one of the main reasons for endothelial dysfunction. Statins may have a protective effect on endothelial barrier function. However, the effect and mechanism of statins on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‐induced endothelial barrier dysfunction remain unclear. Simvastatin (SV) was loaded in nanostructured lipid carriers to produce SV nanoparticles (SV‐NPs). Normal SV and SV‐NPs were used to treat human umbilical vein vascular endothelial cells (HUVECs) injured by LPS. Barrier function was evaluated by monitoring cell monolayer permeability and transendothelial electrical resistance, and cell migration ability was measured by a wound healing assay. LY294002 and imatinib were used to inhibit the activity of PI3K/Akt and platelet‐derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR) β. IQ‐GTPase‐activating protein 1 (IQGAP1) siRNA was used to knockdown endogenous IQGAP1, which was used to verify the role of the PDGFRβ/PI3K/Akt/IQGAP1 pathway in SV/SV‐NPs‐mediated barrier protection in HUVECs injured by LPS. The results show that SV/SV‐NPs promoted the migration and decreased the permeability of HUVECs treated with LPS, and the efficacy of the SV‐NPs exceeded that of SV significantly. LY294002, imatinib and IQGAP1 siRNA all suppressed the barrier protection of SV/SV‐NPs. SV/SV‐NPs promoted the secretion of platelet‐derived growth factor‐BB (PDGF‐BB) and activated the PDGFRβ/PI3K/Akt/IQGAP1 pathway. SV preparations restored endothelial barrier function by restoring endothelial cell migration, which is involved in the regulation of the PDGFRβ/PI3K/Akt/IQGAP1 pathway and PDGF‐BB secretion. As an appropriate formulation for restoring endothelial dysfunction, SV‐NPs may be more effective than SV.

Unraveling the molecular mechanism of interactions of the Rho GTPases Cdc42 and Rac1 with the scaffolding protein IQGAP2

IQ motif-containing GTPase-activating proteins (IQGAPs) are scaffolding proteins playing central roles in cell-cell adhesion, polarity, and motility. The Rho GTPases Cdc42 and Rac1, in their GTP-bound active forms, interact with all three human IQGAPs. The IQGAP-Cdc42 interaction promotes metastasis by enhancing actin polymerization. However, despite their high sequence identity, Cdc42 and Rac1 differ in their interactions with IQGAP. Two Cdc42 molecules can bind to the Ex-domain and the RasGAP site of the GTPase-activating protein (GAP)-related domain (GRD) of IQGAP and promote IQGAP dimerization. Only one Rac1 molecule might bind to the RasGAP site of GRD and may not facilitate the dimerization, and the exact mechanism of Cdc42 and Rac1 binding to IQGAP is unclear. Using all-atom molecular dynamics simulations, site-directed mutagenesis, and Western blotting, we unraveled the detailed mechanisms of Cdc42 and Rac1 interactions with IQGAP2. We observed that Cdc42 binding to the Ex-domain of GRD of IQGAP2 (GRD2) releases the Ex-domain at the C-terminal region of GRD2, facilitating IQGAP2 dimerization. Cdc42 binding to the Ex-domain promoted allosteric changes in the RasGAP site, providing a binding site for the second Cdc42 in the RasGAP site. Of note, the Cdc42 "insert loop" was important for the interaction of the first Cdc42 with the Ex-domain. By contrast, differences in Rac1 insert-loop sequence and structure precluded its interaction with the Ex-domain. Rac1 could bind only to the RasGAP site of apo-GRD2 and could not facilitate IQGAP2 dimerization. Our detailed mechanistic insights help decipher how Cdc42 can stimulate actin polymerization in metastasis.

Role of the Golgi Apparatus in the Blood-Brain Barrier: Golgi Protection May Be a Targeted Therapy for Neurological Diseases

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) protects the brain from toxic material in the blood, provides nutrients for brain tissues, and screens harmful substances from the brain. The specific brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMVECs), tight junction between endothelial cells, and astrocytes ensure proper function of the central nervous system (CNS). Pathological factors disrupt the integrity of the BBB by destroying the normal function of endothelial cells and decreasing the production of tight junction proteins or the expression of proteins specifically localized on astrocytes. Interestingly, fragmentation of the Golgi apparatus is observed in neurological diseases and is involved in the destruction of the BBB function. The Golgi acts as a processing center in which proteins are transported after being processed in the endoplasmic reticulum. Besides reprocessing, classifying, and packaging proteins, the Golgi apparatus (GA) also acts as a signaling platform and calcium pool. In this review, we summarized the current literature on the potential relationship between the Golgi and endothelial cells, tight junction, and astrocytes. The normal function of the BBB is maintained as long as the normal function and morphology of the GA are not disturbed. Furthermore, we speculate that protecting the Golgi may be a novel therapeutic approach to protect the BBB and treat neurological diseases due to BBB dysfunction.

New model for the interaction of IQGAP1 with CDC42 and RAC1

The specific and rapid formation of protein complexes, involving IQGAP family proteins, is essential for diverse cellular processes, such as adhesion, polarization, and directional migration. Although CDC42 and RAC1, prominent members of the RHO GTPase family, have been implicated in binding to and activating IQGAP1, the exact nature of this protein-protein recognition process has remained obscure. Here, we propose a mechanistic framework model that is based on a multiple-step binding process, which is a prerequisite for the dynamic functions of IQGAP1 as a scaffolding protein and a critical mechanism in temporal regulation and integration of cellular pathways.