Long non-coding RNA LINC01207 promotes cell proliferation and migration but suppresses apoptosis and autophagy in oral squamous cell carcinoma by the microRNA-1301-3p/lactate dehydrogenase isoform A axis

The role of LncRNA-mediated autophagy in cancer progression

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a sort of transcripts that are more than 200 nucleotides in length. In recent years, many studies have revealed the modulatory role of lncRNAs in cancer. Typically, lncRNAs are linked to a variety of essential events, such as apoptosis, cellular proliferation, and the invasion of malignant cells. Simultaneously, autophagy, an essential intracellular degradation mechanism in eukaryotic cells, is activated to respond to multiple stressful circumstances, for example, nutrient scarcity, accumulation of abnormal proteins, and organelle damage. Autophagy plays both suppressive and promoting roles in cancer. Increasingly, studies have unveiled how dysregulated lncRNAs expression can disrupt autophagic balance, thereby contributing to cancer progression. Consequently, exploring the interplay between lncRNAs and autophagy holds promising implications for clinical research. In this manuscript, we methodically compiled the advances in the molecular mechanisms of lncRNAs and autophagy and briefly summarized the implications of the lncRNA-mediated autophagy axis.

PDGF-BB accelerates TSCC via fibroblast lactates limiting miR-26a-5p and boosting mitophagy

The tumor microenvironment and cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) play crucial roles in tumor development, and their metabolic coupling remains unclear. Clinical data showed a positive correlation between PDGF-BB, CAFs, and glycolysis in the tumor microenvironment of oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma patients. In vitro, CAFs are derived from hOMF cells treated with PDGF-BB, which induces their formation and promotes aerobic glycolysis. Mitophagy increased the PDGF-BB-induced formation of CAF phenotypes and aerobic glycolysis, while autophagy inhibition blocked PDGF-BB-induced effects. Downregulation of miR-26a-5p was observed in CAFs; upregulation of miR-26a-5p inhibited the expression of mitophagy-related proteins ULKI, Parkin, PINK1, and LC3 and aerobic glycolysis in PDGF-BB-induced CAFs. PDGF-BB-induced CAFs promoted tumor cell proliferation, invasion, metastasis, NF-κB signaling pathway activation, and PDGF-BB secretion. Thus, PDGF-BB is associated with lactate-induced CAF formation and glucose metabolism reprogramming. These findings indicate potential therapeutic targets in oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma.

MicroRNA-155 downregulates long noncoding RNA prostate cancer-associated transcript 29 in hepatocellular carcinoma to suppress cancer cell invasion and migration

Long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) prostate cancer-associated transcript 29 (PCAT29) is known to suppress several cancers, but its participation in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains elusive. This study tried to explore PCAT29 function in HCC. In this study, a total of 62 HCC patients were enrolled. Tissue samples were collected from all 62 patients to isolate RNA samples. Quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction was applied for the expression analysis of PCAT29 and microRNA-155 (miR-155) in these tissue samples. The 62 HCC patients were followed up for 5 years to explore the prognostic value of PCAT29 for HCC. Correlations were analyzed using linear regression. IntaRNA 2.0 was used to predict the interaction between PCAT29 and miR-155. The role of PCAT29 and miR-155 in regulating HCC cell invasion and migration was evaluated by Transwell assay. We found that PCAT29 expression was downregulated in HCC and miR-155 expression was upregulated in HCC compared to nontumor samples (p < 0.001). Downregulation of PCAT29 was found to be closely associated with poor survival of HCC patients. MiR-155 was inversely correlated with PCAT29. It was predicted that miR-155 could target PCAT29. In HCC cells, miR-155 overexpression resulted in reduced PCAT29 expression (p < 0.05). MiR-155 counteracted the inhibitory effects of PCAT29 overexpression on HCC cell migration and invasion. These results suggest that PCAT29 may be a potential prognostic biomarker and a novel therapeutic target for treating HCC.

A snapshot of miRNAs in oral squamous cell carcinoma: Difference between cancer cells and corresponding normal cells

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) constitutes the most aggressive tumors of the oral cavity and is one of the leading causes of cancer mortality worldwide. Although recent clinical treatment strategies have improved the survival rate, the outcome of OSCC patients still remains dismal because of the lack of efficient diagnostic and treatment tools. As one of the main actors of OSCC scenario, microRNAs (miRNAs) are involved in triggering, progression and metastasis through the regulation of various cancer-related signaling pathways. Identification followed by precise study of the biology and mechanism of action of miRNAs will greatly help to provide valuable insights regarding OSCC development and can be considered as an anti-OSCC target. In the current review, we have provided a focused summary of the latest published papers on the role of miRNAs in apoptosis, cell cycle, proliferation, EMT and metastasis of OSCC as well as the role of long noncoding RNAs in the modulation of miRNAs in OSCC.

Non-Coding RNAs in Oral Cancer: Emerging Roles and Clinical Applications

Oral cancer (OC) is among the most prevalent cancers in the world. Certain geographical areas are disproportionately affected by OC cases due to the regional differences in dietary habits, tobacco and alcohol consumption. However, conventional therapeutic methods do not yield satisfying treatment outcomes. Thus, there is an urgent need to understand the disease process and to develop diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for OC. In this review, we discuss the role of various types of ncRNAs in OC, and their promising clinical implications as prognostic or diagnostic markers and therapeutic targets. MicroRNA (miRNA), long ncRNA (lncRNA), circular RNA (circRNA), PIWI-interacting RNA (piRNA), and small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) are the major ncRNA types whose involvement in OC are emerging. Dysregulated expression of ncRNAs, particularly miRNAs, lncRNAs, and circRNAs, are linked with the initiation, progression, as well as therapy resistance of OC via modulation in a series of cellular pathways through epigenetic, transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and translational modifications. Differential expressions of miRNAs and lncRNAs in blood, saliva or extracellular vesicles have indicated potential diagnostic and prognostic importance. In this review, we have summarized all the promising aspects of ncRNAs in the management of OC.

circNFATC3 facilitated the progression of oral squamous cell carcinoma via the miR-520h/LDHA axis

The aim of this study was to verify the effects of circular RNA nuclear factor of activated T-cells, cytoplasmic 3 (circNFATC3), in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) development. The levels of circNFATC3, microRNA-520h (miR-520h), and lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA) were measured by qRT-PCR and western blot analysis. The cellular functions were assessed by using commercial kits, MTT assay, EdU assay, flow cytometry analysis, and transwell assay. The interactions between miR-520h and circNFATC3 or LDHA were confirmed by dual-luciferase reporter assay. Finally, the mice test was enforced to evaluate the character of circNFATC3. We observed that the contents of circNFATC3 and LDHA were upregulated and miR-520h levels were downregulated in OSCC tissues compared with those in paracancerous tissues. For functional analysis, circNFATC3 knockdown repressed the cell glycolysis metabolism, cell proliferation, migration, and invasion, although it improved cell apoptosis in OSCC cells. LDHA could regulate the development of OSCC. circNFATC3 acted as a miR-520h sponge to modulate LDHA expression. In addition, the absence of circNFATC3 subdued tumor growth in vivo. In conclusion, circNFATC3 promoted the advancement of OSCC by adjusting the miR-520h/LDHA axis.

Long non-coding RNA PSMG3 Antisense RNA 1 is correlated with oral squamous cell carcinoma and regulates cancer cell proliferation by targeting premature microRNA-141

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is common worldwide. In this study, the interaction of microRNA-141 (miR-141) with long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) PSMG3 Antisense RNA 1 (PSMG3-AS1) in OSCC was explored. RT-qPCR was used to analyze the expression of PSMG3-AS1 and miR-141 (both mature and premature) in OSCC. Nuclear fractionation assay was applied to detect PSMG3-AS1 in subcellular locations. RNA pull-down assay was performed to evaluate the binding of miR-141 to PSMG3-AS1. Overexpression assay followed by RT-qPCR was performed to explore the role of PSMG3-AS1 in maturation of miR-141. The function of PSMG3-AS1 and miR-141 in regulating OSCC cell proliferation was assessed by BrdU assay. The results showed that PSMG3-AS1 was highly upregulated in OSCC and miR-141 was downregulated in OSCC. However, no alteration in the expression of premature miR-141 was observed in OSCC. Premature miR-141 was found to directly bind to PSMG3-AS1. Overexpression of PSMG3-AS1 suppressed the maturation of miR-141. PSMG3-AS1 increased OSCC cell proliferation and tumor growth and suppressed the inhibitory role of miR-141 in cell proliferation and tumor growth. Therefore, PSMG3-AS1 may inhibit the maturation of miR-141 to promote OSCC cell proliferation.

LDHA: The Obstacle to T cell responses against tumor

Immunotherapy has become a successful therapeutic strategy in certain solid tumors and hematological malignancies. However, this efficacy of immunotherapy is impeded by limited success rates. Cellular metabolic reprogramming determines the functionality and viability in both cancer cells and immune cells. Extensive research has unraveled that the limited success of immunotherapy is related to immune evasive metabolic reprogramming in tumor cells and immune cells. As an enzyme that catalyzes the final step of glycolysis, lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA) has become a major focus of research. Here, we have addressed the structure, localization, and biological features of LDHA. Furthermore, we have discussed the various aspects of epigenetic regulation of LDHA expression, such as histone modification, DNA methylation, N6-methyladenosine (m6A) RNA methylation, and transcriptional control by noncoding RNA. With a focus on the extrinsic (tumor cells) and intrinsic (T cells) functions of LDHA in T-cell responses against tumors, in this article, we have reviewed the current status of LDHA inhibitors and their combination with T cell-mediated immunotherapies and postulated different strategies for future therapeutic regimens.

Unravelling the roles of Autophagy in OSCC: A renewed perspective from mechanisms to potential applications

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is associated with a low survival rate and a high disability rate, making it a serious health burden, particularly in Southeast Asian countries. Therefore, improvements in the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis prediction of OSCC are highly warranted. Autophagy has a significant impact on cancer development. Studies on autophagy in various human cancers have made outstanding contributions; however, the relationship between autophagy and OSCC remains to be explored. This review highlights the roles of autophagy in OSCC and discusses the relationship between autophagy and Epithelial–mesenchymal transition. Considering the lack of OSCC biomarkers, we focus on the studies involving OSCC-related bioinformatics analysis and molecular targets. Based on some classical targets, we summarize several key autophagy-related biomarkers with a considerable potential for clinical application, which may become the hotspot of OSCC research. In conclusion, we elaborate on the interrelationship between autophagy and OSCC and highlight the shortcomings of current studies to provide insights into the potential clinical strategies.

A novel cuproptosis-related lncRNA prognostic signature for predicting treatment and immune environment of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is an urgent public health issue due to its poor prognosis and resistance to anti-cancer agents. However, the role of cuproptosis, a newly identified form cell death, in applications of HNSCC is still not a known. In this study, single-cell RNA sequencing data was used to explore cuproptosis-related gene expression in the tumour microenvironment. A prognostic model was constructed based on the cuproptosis-related lncRNA. Various methods were performed to predict the overall survival (OS) of different risk score patients and explore difference in enrichment function and pathways between the risk score patients. Finally, a series of immunogenomic landscape analyses were performed and evaluated the immune function, immune infiltration and sensitivity to chemotherapeutic agents. Cancer cell cluster expressed the essential cuproptosis-related gene. As the risk score increased of HNSCC patients, a significant decrease in survival status and time occurred for patients in the high-risk score patient. The AUC for predicting 1-, 3-, and 5-years OS were 0.679, 0.713 and 0.656, indicating that the model regarded as an independent prognostic signature in comparison with the clinical-pathological characteristics. As a results of GO, the immune function and immune infiltration of different risk score patients were assessed, revealing significant differences in T cell function and abundance of different types of T cells. Low-risk score patients are relatively insensitive to chemotherapy agents such as docetaxel and cisplatin, and easily resistant to immunotherapy. A cuproptosis-related lncRNA prognostic model was constructed to predict OS of HNSCC patients and provided the newly therapeutic strategies.

Emerging role of lncRNAs in drug resistance mechanisms in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) originates in the squamous cell lining the mucosal surfaces of the head and neck region, including the oral cavity, nasopharynx, tonsils, oropharynx, larynx, and hypopharynx. The heterogeneity, anatomical, and functional characteristics of the patient make the HNSCC a complex and difficult-to-treat disease, leading to a poor survival rate and a decreased quality of life due to the loss of important physiologic functions and aggressive surgical injury. Alteration of driver-oncogenic and tumor-suppressing lncRNAs has recently been recently in HNSCC to obtain possible biomarkers for diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic approaches. This review provides current knowledge about the implication of lncRNAs in drug resistance mechanisms in HNSCC. Chemotherapy resistance is a major therapeutic challenge in HNSCC in which lncRNAs are implicated. Lately, it has been shown that lncRNAs involved in autophagy induced by chemotherapy and epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) can act as mechanisms of resistance to anticancer drugs. Conversely, lncRNAs involved in mesenchymal–epithelial transition (MET) are related to chemosensitivity and inhibition of invasiveness of drug-resistant cells. In this regard, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) play a pivotal role in both processes and are important for cancer detection, progression, diagnosis, therapy response, and prognostic values. As the involvement of more lncRNAs is elucidated in chemoresistance mechanisms, an improvement in diagnostic and prognostic tools could promote an advance in targeted and specific therapies in precision oncology.

Long Non-Coding RNA LINC01929 Facilitates Cell Proliferation and Metastasis as a Competing Endogenous RNA Against MicroRNA miR-1179 in Non-Small Cell Lung Carcinoma

Introduction: Non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) constitutes most lung cancers and has a poor prognosis. LncRNAs are a potential repository for the discovery of cancer prognostic markers. This study explored the role of LINC01929 in NSCLC, both the clinical prognostic significance and the mechanism of its influence on cells.

Materials and Methods: LINC01929 levels in 143 pairs of NSCLC tissues and non-cancerous tissues were detected by RT-qPCR. Kaplan-Meier curves and multivariate Cox regression assays were generated for evaluating the prognostic values of LINC01929. To evaluate the cellular function, an XTT assay and transwell invasion assays were performed.

Results: LINC01929 was up-regulated in NSCLC tissues compared with healthy tissues. A positive correlation was observed between LINC01929 expression level and tumor T (p = 0.002) or N stage (p = 0.010). Patients with higher LINC01929 levels had shorter overall survival (p = 0.009). Compared with other factors, high LINC01929 expression was significantly associated with poor survival in univariate Cox analysis (HR: 2.485, 95%CI: 1.220–5.060, p = 0.012). After multivariate Cox regression assays, LINC01929 was a independent prognostic factor (HR: 3.021, 95%CI: 1.377–6.628, p = 0.006). miR-1179 was a target miRNA of LINC01929. Inhibited expression of LINC01929 significantly reduced the proliferation, migration, and invasion of NSCLC cells by targeting miR-1179.

Discussion: This study revealed the upregulation of LINC01929 in NSCLC. This study supports previous studies showing LINC01929 as a potential prognostic factor for NSCLC.

Long non-coding RNA BBOX1-antisense RNA 1 enhances cell proliferation and migration and suppresses apoptosis in oral squamous cell carcinoma via the miR-3940-3p/laminin subunit gamma 2 axis

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) play an essential role in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). We aimed to demonstrate the effects of lncRNA gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase 1 (BBOX1)-antisense RNA 1 (AS1) in OSCC and its regulatory mechanisms. The levels of BBOX1-AS1, microRNA (miR)-3940-3p, and laminin subunit gamma 2 (LAMC2) in OSCC were determined using reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction. The correlations among BBOX1-AS1, miR-3940-3p, and LAMC2 were validated using luciferase, pull-down, and RNA immunoprecipitation assays. Cell proliferation, migration, and apoptosis were examined. BBOX1-AS1 and LAMC2 were notably overexpressed in OSCC, while miR-3940-3p showed the opposite trend. BBOX-1-AS1 silencing reduced the cell proliferation and migration, while promoting apoptosis. Mechanistically, BBOX1-AS1 modulates LAMC2 expression by competitively binding to miR-3940-3p. miR-3940-3p inhibition alleviated the inhibitory effects of BBOX1-AS1 deficiency on OSCC development. LAMC2 knockdown reversed these changes. Our results revealed that BBOX1-AS1 promotes the malignant phenotype of OSCC cells via the upregulation of LAMC2 expression by targeting miR-3940-3p, indicating that BBOX1-AS1 may be a novel target for OSCC intervention.

Long non-coding RNA LINC00472 inhibits oral squamous cell carcinoma via miR-4311/GNG7 axis

Emerging studies indicate that long non-coding RNAs play important roles in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). However, the function of the majority of long non-coding RNAs is still unclear. Recently, LINC00472 has been reported to play crucial roles in multiple cancers. However, the role of LINC00472 in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is still not clear. This study found that LncRNA LINC00472 was significantly down-regulated in several squamous cell carcinoma cancer tissues and OSCC cell lines. Over-expression of LINC00472 in OSCC cells inhibited OSCC progression and alleviated OSCC immune responses. Additionally, we confirmed that LINC00472 functioned as an hsa-miR-4311 sponge and regulated the expression of GNG7 (guanine nucleotide-binding protein, gamma 7). Also, we found that LINC00472 over-expression could suppress xenograft tumor growth in vivo. Our study provides evidence that LINC00472 plays an essential role in inhibiting oral squamous cell carcinoma progression and affecting immune responses by directly binding to hsa-miR-4311 to regulate the expression of GNG7 positively.

Aberrant Expression of miR-1301 in Human Cancer

miR-1301 is a newly discovered miRNA, which is abnormally expressed in 14 types of tumors. miR-1301 inhibits 23 target genes, forms a ceRNA network with 2 circRNAs and 8 lncRNAs, and participates in 6 signaling pathways, thereby affecting tumor cell proliferation, invasion, metastasis, apoptosis, angiogenesis, etc. Abnormal expression of miR-1301 is often associated with poor prognosis of cancer patients. In addition, miR-1301 is related to the anti-tumor effect of epirubicin on osteosarcoma and imatinib on chronic myeloid leukemia(CML) and can enhance the cisplatin sensitivity of ovarian cancer. This work systematically summarizes the abnormal expression and prognostic value of miR-1301 in a variety of cancers, depicts the miR-1301-related signaling pathways and ceRNA network, and provides potential clues for future miR-1301 research.

Has_circ_0008583 modulates hepatocellular carcinoma progression through the miR-1301-3p/METTL3 pathway

Has_circ_0008583 is reported to be involved in the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), while its biological role in HCC remains unclear. Here, the qRT-PCR was used to detect the expression of has_circ_0008583. The CCK-8 kit was performed to measure cell proliferation. The cell migration and invasion were evaluated by Transwell. A dual-luciferase reporter assay was performed to confirm the target combination between the genes in has_circ_0008583/miR-1301-3p/METTL3 axis. The in vivo role of has_circ_0008583 was verified by murine xenograft assay. Our data showed that hsa_circ_0008583 was upregulated in HCC tissues and cells. Hsa_circ_0008583 overexpression promoted Hep3B cell proliferation, migration and invasion, but hsa_circ_0008583 silencing had an opposing influence. MiR-1301-3p is directly bound to hsa_circ_0008583 and METTL3. MiR-1301-3p overexpression or METTL3 knockdown could partially counteract hsa_circ_0008583 overexpression-mediated influence on HCC cell behaviors. In addition, hsa_circ_0008583 depletion inhibits HCC tumor growth in vivo. In conclusion, hsa_circ_0008583 promotes HCC progression through the miR-1301-3p/METTL3 axis.

LINC00472 suppresses oral squamous cell carcinoma growth by targeting miR-455-3p/ELF3 axis

LINC00472 is reported to play a role in suppressing tumors in cancers such as lung cancer and hepatocellular carcinoma, among others. We made investigations into the effects of LINC00472 in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) progression to explore the underlying molecular mechanisms. By qRT-PCR, we assessed the LINC00472 expression in OSCC tissues and cells and performed functional analysis to investigate how LINC00472/miR-455-3p/ELF3 impacts OSCC cell proliferation, apoptosis, and cell cycle. The role that LINC00472 plays in OSCC tumor growth was examined by establishing a xenograft model. Down-regulation of LINC00472 occurred in tissues and cells of an OSCC tumor. LINC00472 overexpression caused OSCC cell proliferation to be inhibited, cell apoptosis to be promoted, and cell cycle arrest to be induced. As a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA), LINC00472 can block miR-455-3p function and further promote ELF3 expression. The overexpression of miR-455-3p or ELF3 knockdown was shown to be capable of reversing the anti-tumor effects of LINC00472 in OSCC. In vivo experiments confirmed the tumor-suppressing role of LINC00472 in the progression of OSCC. In short, we found that the novel LINC00472 inhibits OSCC growth via the miR-455-3p/ELF3 axis. LINC00472 and its targeted miR-455-3p/ELF3 axis may represent valuable targets for treating OSCC.

Circular RNA circPRKDC promotes tumorigenesis of gastric cancer via modulating insulin receptor substrate 2 (IRS2) and mediating microRNA-493-5p

CircPRKDC has been disclosed to participate in the tumorigenesis of serval tumors, but the regulatory mechanisms of circPRKDC in GC are still unknown. CircPRKDC, miR-493-5p, and insulin receptor substrate 2 (IRS2) levels were tested by RT-qPCR. The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-related protein levels were evaluated via western blot. The cell viability, migration and invasion were evaluated through CCK-8 and Transwell assays. Luciferase reporter and RIP assays were employed to confirm the binding ability between miR-493-5p and circPRKDC or IRS2. CircPRKDC was upregulated in GC samples, and circPRKDC silencing restrained GC cell viability, metastasis, and EMT and suppressed GC tumor growth. Besides, miR-493-5p was a target of circPRKDC, and the repressive impact of circPRKDC knockdown on GC development was neutralized by miR-493-5p inhibition. Moreover, miR-493-5p targeted IRS2 and IRS2 addition rescued the effects of circPRKDC depletion on GC progression. Finally, circPRKDC knockdown could regulate IRS2 expression by targeting miR-493-5p. These results elaborated that circPRKDC accelerated GC development via sponging miR-493-5p and increasing IRS2, which might provide novel potential targets for GC treatment.

Long non-coding RNA TTN-AS1/microRNA-199a-3p/runt-related transcription factor 1 gene axis regulates the progression of oral squamous cell carcinoma

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) has a high degree of malignancy, which affects the quality of life and prognosis of patients with OSCC. Our study aimed to reveal the function of long non-coding RNA TTN-AS1/microRNA-199a-3p (miR-199a-3p)/runt-related transcription factor 1 (RUNX1) axis in OSCC progression, thereby providing a novel OSCC effective strategy. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blotting were performed to detect the expression of TTN-AS1, miR-199a-3p, and RUNX1 in OSCC. Several cell functional experiments, including Cell Counting Kit-8, flow cytometry, and cell adhesion assays, were used to assess cell proliferation, apoptosis, adhesion, and migration. A luciferase assay was performed to confirm the interaction between TTN-AS1, miR-199a-3p, and RUNX1. Our results revealed that TTN-AS1 and RUNX1 were upregulated in OSCC tissues and cells, whereas miR-199a-3p expression was downregulated. Knockdown of TTN-AS1 or RUNX1 suppressed cell proliferation, adhesion, and migration but induced apoptosis. Additionally, miR-199a-3p inhibitor partly relieved the effects of silencing TTN-AS1 and RUNX1 in OSCC cells due to their targeting relationship. In conclusion, TTN-AS1 and RUNX1 could promote OSCC progression and miR-199a-3p partly relieved the effects of TTN-AS1 and RUNX1.