Gold nanoparticles synthesized using Panax ginseng leaves suppress inflammatory - mediators production via blockade of NF-κB activation in macrophages

A review of metallic nanoparticles: present issues and prospects focused on the preparation methods, characterization techniques, and their theranostic applications

Metallic nanoparticles (MNPs) have garnered significant attention due to their ability to improve the therapeutic index of medications by reducing multidrug resistance and effectively delivering therapeutic agents through active targeting. In addition to drug delivery, MNPs have several medical applications, including in vitro and in vivo diagnostics, and they improve the biocompatibility of materials and nutraceuticals. MNPs have several advantages in drug delivery systems and genetic manipulation, such as improved stability and half-life in circulation, passive or active targeting into the desired target selective tissue, and gene manipulation by delivering genetic materials. The main goal of this review is to provide current information on the present issues and prospects of MNPs in drug and gene delivery systems. The current study focused on MNP preparation methods and their characterization by different techniques, their applications to targeted delivery, non-viral vectors in genetic manipulation, and challenges in clinical trial translation.

Seagrass as a potential nutraceutical to decrease pro-inflammatory markers

BACKGROUND

The Pro-inflammatory mediators such as prostaglandin E2, nitric oxide and TNF-α are the key players in the stimulation of the inflammatory responses. Thus, the pro-inflammatory mediators are considered to be potential targets for screening nutraceutical with anti-inflammatory activity.

METHODS

In this context, we explored the anti-inflammatory potency of seagrass extract with western blot (Bio-Rad) analysis by using LPS induced RAW macrophages as in-vitro models, western blot analysis, In-silico methods using Mastero 13.0 software.

RESULTS

The anti-inflammatory activity of Seagrass was demonstrated through down regulation of Pro-inflammatory markers such as Cyclooxygenase-2, induced Nitric oxide synthase and prostaglandin E synthase-1. The results were validated by docking the phytochemical constituents of seagrass namely Isocoumarin, Hexadecanoic acid, and Cis-9 Octadecenoic acid, 1,2 Benzene dicarboxylic acid and beta-sitosterol with TNF-alpha, COX-2, iNOS and PGES-1.

CONCLUSION

The methanolic extract of seagrass Halophila beccarii is a potential nutraceutical agent for combating against inflammation with a significant anti-inflammatory activity.

Anti-inflammatory role of gold nanoparticles in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease that causes memory and cognitive dysfunction and reduces a person's decision-making and reasoning functions. AD is the leading cause of dementia in the elderly. Patients with AD have increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the nervous system, and the sustained inflammatory response impairs neuronal function. Meanwhile, long-term use of anti-inflammatory drugs can reduce the incidence of AD to some extent. This confirms that anti-neuroinflammation may be an effective treatment for AD. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are an emerging nanomaterial with promising physicochemical properties, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant. AuNPs reduce neuroinflammation by inducing macrophage polarization toward the M2 phenotype, reducing pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, blocking leukocyte adhesion, and decreasing oxidative stress. Therefore, AuNPs are gradually attracting the interest of scholars and are used for treating inflammatory diseases and drug delivery. Herein, we explored the role and mechanism of AuNPs in treating neuroinflammation in AD. The use of AuNPs for treating AD is a topic worth exploring in the future, not only to help solve a global public health problem but also to provide a reference for treating other neuroinflammatory diseases.

Ginsenosides in cancer: Targeting cell cycle arrest and apoptosis

Despite the existence of extensive clinical research and novel therapeutic treatments, cancer remains undefeated and the significant cause of death worldwide. Cancer is a disease in which growth of cells goes out of control, being also able to invade other parts of the body. Cellular division is strictly controlled by multiple checkpoints like G1/S and G2/M which, when dysregulated, lead to uncontrollable cell division. The current remedies which are being utilized to combat cancer are monoclonal antibodies, chemotherapy, cryoablation, and bone marrow transplant etc. and these have also been greatly disheartening because of their serious adverse effects like hypotension, neuropathy, necrosis, leukemia relapse and many more. Bioactive compounds derived from natural products have marked the history of the development of novel drug therapies against cancer among which ginsenosides have no peer as they target several signaling pathways, which when abnormally regulated, lead to cancer. Substantial research has reported that ginsenosides like Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc, Rd, Rg3, Rh2 etc. can prevent and treat cancer by targeting different pathways and molecules by induction of autophagy, neutralizing ROS, induction of cancerous cell death by controlling the p53 pathway, modulation of miRNAs by decreasing Smad2 expression, regulating Bcl-2 expression by normalizing the NF-Kb pathway, inhibition of inflammatory pathways by decreasing the production of cytokines like IL-8, causing cell cycle arrest by restricting cyclin E1 and CDC2, and induction of apoptosis during malignancy by decreasing β-catenin levels etc. In this review, we have analyzed the anti-cancer therapeutic potential of various ginsenoside compounds in order to consider their possible use in new strategies in the fight against cancer.

A comprehensive and systemic review of ginseng-based nanomaterials: Synthesis, targeted delivery, and biomedical applications

Among 17 Panax species identified across the world, Panax ginseng (Korean ginseng), Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng), and Panax notoginseng (Chinese ginseng) are highly recognized for the presence of bioactive compound, ginsenosides and their pharmacological effects. P. ginseng is widely used for synthesis of different types of nanoparticles compared to P. quinquefolius and P. notoginseng. The use of nano-ginseng could increase the oral bioavailability, membrane permeability, and thus provide effective delivery of ginsenosides to the target sites through transport system. In this review, we explore the synthesis of ginseng nanoparticles using plant extracts from various organs, microbes, and polymers, as well as their biomedical applications. Furthermore, we highlight transporters involved in transport of ginsenoside nanoparticles to the target sites. Size, zeta potential, temperature, and pH are also discussed as the critical parameters affecting the quality of ginseng nanoparticles synthesis.

Synthesis of Au-Ag bimetallic nanoparticles using Korean red ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) root extract for chemo-photothermal anticancer therapy

Green synthesis strategies have been widely applied for the preparation of versatile nanomaterials. Gold nanospheres with an average size of 6.95 ± 2.25 nm were green synthesized by using a 70% ethanol extract of Korean red ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) root as a reducing agent. A seed-mediated synthesis was conducted to prepare Au-Ag bimetallic nanoparticles using gold nanospheres as seeds. Remarkably, Au-Ag bimetallic nanoparticles with an average size of 80.4 ± 11.9 nm were synthesized. Scanning transmission electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and elemental mappings revealed bimetallic nanoparticles with Au-Ag alloy core and Au-rich shells. A face-centered cubic structure of Au-Ag bimetallic nanoparticles was confirmed by X-ray diffraction analysis. For Au-Ag bimetallic nanoparticles, the ratio of Ag/Au was 0.20 which was detected and analyzed by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. Gold nanospheres and Au-Ag bimetallic nanoparticles were functionalized by PEGylation, folic acid conjugation and grafting onto graphene oxide. Finally, docetaxel was loaded for evaluating the in vitro cell viability on cancer cells. Successful functionalization was confirmed by Fourier-transform infrared spectra. The anticancer activity of the docetaxel-loaded nanoparticles was higher than that of their non-docetaxel-loaded counterparts. The highest anticancer activity on human gastric adenocarcinoma cells (AGS) was observed in the docetaxel-loaded gold nanospheres that were functionalized by PEGylation, folic acid conjugation and grafting onto graphene oxide. Additionally, grafting onto graphene oxide and docetaxel loading induced high intracellular reactive oxygen species generation. For chemo-photothermal (PTT) anticancer therapy, cell viability was investigated using near-infrared laser irradiation at 808 nm. The highest chemo-PTT anticancer activity on AGS cells was observed in the docetaxel-loaded Au-Ag bimetallic nanoparticles. Therefore, the newly prepared docetaxel-loaded Au-Ag bimetallic nanoparticles in the current report have potential applications in chemo-PTT anticancer therapy.

Regulating the microenvironment with nanomaterials: Potential strategies to ameliorate COVID-19

COVID-19, caused by SARS-CoV-2, has resulted in serious economic and health burdens. Current treatments remain inadequate to extinguish the epidemic, and efficient therapeutic approaches for COVID-19 are urgently being sought. Interestingly, accumulating evidence suggests that microenvironmental disorder plays an important role in the progression of COVID-19 in patients. In addition, recent advances in nanomaterial technologies provide promising opportunities for alleviating the altered homeostasis induced by a viral infection, providing new insight into COVID-19 treatment. Most literature reviews focus only on certain aspects of microenvironment alterations and fail to provide a comprehensive overview of the changes in homeostasis in COVID-19 patients. To fill this gap, this review systematically discusses alterations of homeostasis in COVID-19 patients and potential mechanisms. Next, advances in nanotechnology-based strategies for promoting homeostasis restoration are summarized. Finally, we discuss the challenges and prospects of using nanomaterials for COVID-19 management. This review provides a new strategy and insights into treating COVID-19 and other diseases associated with microenvironment disorders.

Ovotransferrin alleviated acute gastric mucosal injury in BALB/c mice caused by ethanol

Acute gastric mucosal injury is a common gastrointestinal disorder, which influences patients' life quality. It was found that ovotransferrin (OVT) reduces the abundance of Helicobacter pylori associated with gastric disease in the intestine of immunosuppressed mice. To clarify its gastric protective function, the present study investigated the effect of OVT on BALB/c mice with ethanol-induced gastric mucosal injury. Results showed that OVT attenuated the ethanol-induced gastric mucosal injury. Furthermore, OVT effectively downregulated the expression of inflammatory markers (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6) but enhanced the secretion of IL-4, IL-10 and prostaglandin E2. And OVT pretreatment significantly inhibited the activation of the MAPK/NF-κB pathway. Additionally, OVT improved gastric antioxidant ability by increasing superoxide dismutase and glutathione levels and decreasing malondialdehyde and myeloperoxidase content. Pretreatment with OVT modulated the equilibrium between B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) and Bcl-2-associated X. The above results indicated that OVT alleviated inflammatory responses, oxidative stress and apoptosis in gastric mucosal injury mice caused by ethanol.

Mechanism and Antibacterial Activity of Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) Functionalized with Natural Compounds from Plants

Recently, the biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) has been widely studied and described. In the age of bacterial drug resistance, an intensive search for new agents with antibacterial properties or a new form of antibiotics with effective action is necessary. As a result, the antibacterial activity of AuNPs functionalized with natural compounds is being investigated more frequently. AuNPs biosynthesized with plant extract or functionalized with bioactive compounds isolated from plants could be particularly useful for pharmaceutical applications. The biosynthesized AuNPs are stabilized by an envelope, which may consist of flavonoids, phenolic acids, lipids and proteins as well as carbohydrates and vitamins. The composition of the natural coating affects the size, shape and stability of the AuNPs and is also responsible for interactions with the bacterial cell wall. Recently, several mechanisms of AuNP interactions with bacterial cells have been identified. Nevertheless, they are not yet well understood, due to the large diversity of plants and biosynthesized AuNPs. Understanding the antibacterial mechanisms allows for the creation of pharmaceutical formulations in the most useful form. Utilizing AuNPs functionalized with plant compounds as antibacterial agents is still a new concept. However, the unique physicochemical and biological properties of AuNPs emphasises their potential for a broad range of applications in the future.

Microcurrent and Gold Nanoparticles Combined with Hyaluronic Acid Accelerates Wound Healing

This study aimed to investigate the effects of iontophoresis and hyaluronic acid (HA) combined with a gold nanoparticle (GNP) solution in an excisional wound model. Fifty Wistar rats (n = 10/group) were randomly assigned to the following groups: excisional wound (EW); EW + MC; EW + MC + HA; EW + MC + GNPs; and EW + MC + HA + GNPs. The animals were induced to a circular excision, and treatment started 24 h after injury with microcurrents (300 µA) containing gel with HA (0.9%) and/or GNPs (30 mg/L) in the electrodes (1 mL) for 7 days. The animals were euthanized 12 h after the last treatment application. The results demonstrate a reduction in the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IFNϒ, IL-1β, TNFα, and IL-6) in the group in which the therapies were combined, and they show increased levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10) and growth factors (FGF and TGF-β) in the EW + MC + HA and EW + MC + HA + GNPs groups. As for the levels of dichlorofluorescein (DCF) and nitrite, as well as oxidative damage (carbonyl and sulfhydryl), they decreased in the combined therapy group when compared to the control group. Regarding antioxidant defense, there was an increase in glutathione (GSH) and a decrease in superoxide dismutase (SOD) in the combined therapy group. A histological analysis showed reduced inflammatory infiltrate in the MC-treated groups and in the combination therapy group. There was an increase in the wound contraction rate in all treated groups when compared to the control group, proving that the proposed therapies are effective in the epithelial healing process. The results of this study demonstrate that the therapies in combination favor the tissue repair process more significantly than the therapies in isolation.

Biologically Synthesized Rosa rugosa-Based Gold Nanoparticles Suppress Skin Inflammatory Responses via MAPK and NF-κB Signaling Pathway in TNF-α/IFN-γ-Induced HaCaT Keratinocytes

Nanotechnology-applied materials and related therapeutics have gained attention for treating inflammatory skin diseases. The beach rose (Rosa rugosa), belonging to the family Rosaceae, is a perennial, deciduous woody shrub endemic to northeastern Asia. In this study, R. rugosa-based gold nanoparticles (RR-AuNPs) were biologically synthesized under optimal conditions to explore their potential as anti-inflammatory agents for treating skin inflammation. The synthesized RR-AuNPs were analyzed using field emission-transmission electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry, selected-area electron diffraction, and X-ray diffraction. The uniformly well-structured AuNPs showed near-spherical and polygonal shapes. Cell viability evaluation and optical observation results showed that the RR-AuNPs were absorbed by human keratinocytes without causing cytotoxic effects. The effects of RR-AuNPs on the skin inflammatory response were investigated in human keratinocytes treated with tumor necrosis factor-α/interferon-γ (T + I). The results showed that T + I-stimulated increases in inflammatory mediators, including chemokines, interleukins, and reactive oxygen species, were significantly suppressed by RR-AuNP treatment in a concentration-dependent manner. The western blotting results indicated that the RR-AuNP-mediated anti-inflammatory effects were highly associated with the suppression of inflammatory signaling, mitogen-activated protein kinase, and nuclear factor-κB. These results demonstrate that plant extract-based AuNPs are novel anti-inflammatory candidates for topical application to treat skin inflammation.

Medicinal plants' proposed nanocomposites for the management of endocrine disorders

Extensive attention has been focused on herbal medicine for the treatment of different endocrine disorders. In fact, compelling scientific evidence indicates that natural compounds might act as endocrine modulators by mimicking, stimulating, or inhibiting the actions of different hormones, such as thyroid, sex, steroidal, and glucose regulating hormones. These potentials might be effectively employed for therapeutic purposes related to the endocrine system as novel complementary choices. Nevertheless, despite the remarkable therapeutic effects, inadequate targeting efficiency and low aqueous solubility of the bioactive components are still essential challenges in their clinical accreditation. On the other hand, nanotechnology has pushed the wheels of combining inorganic nanoparticles with biological structures of medicinal bioactive compounds as one of the utmost exciting fields of research. Nanoparticle conjugations create an inclusive array of applications that provide greater compliance, higher bioavailability, and lower dosage. This can safeguard the global availability of these wealthy natural sources, regardless of their biological occurrence. This review inspects future challenges of medicinal plants in various endocrine disorders for safe and alternative treatments with examples of their nanoparticle formulations.

Nanoparticle Effects on Stress Response Pathways and Nanoparticle-Protein Interactions

Nanoparticles (NPs) are increasingly used in a wide variety of applications and products; however, NPs may affect stress response pathways and interact with proteins in biological systems. This review article will provide an overview of the beneficial and detrimental effects of NPs on stress response pathways with a focus on NP-protein interactions. Depending upon the particular NP, experimental model system, and dose and exposure conditions, the introduction of NPs may have either positive or negative effects. Cellular processes such as the development of oxidative stress, the initiation of the inflammatory response, mitochondrial function, detoxification, and alterations to signaling pathways are all affected by the introduction of NPs. In terms of tissue-specific effects, the local microenvironment can have a profound effect on whether an NP is beneficial or harmful to cells. Interactions of NPs with metal-binding proteins (zinc, copper, iron and calcium) affect both their structure and function. This review will provide insights into the current knowledge of protein-based nanotoxicology and closely examines the targets of specific NPs.

Hemostasis and Anti-Inflammatory Abilities of AuNPs-Coated Chitosan Dressing for Burn Wounds

Burn injuries are a common hazard in the military, as fire is likely to be weaponized. Thus, it is important to find an effective substance to accelerate burn wound healing. This study used chitosan and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) as wound dressings and investigated their effectiveness in femoral artery hemorrhage swine and rat burn models. Chitosan dressing has significant hemostatic properties compared with gauze. Histological results showed that burn wounds treated with chitosan or AuNP-coated chitosan dressings exhibited more cells and a continuous structure of the epidermis and dermis than those of the control and untreated lesion groups. Furthermore, both chitosan dressings have been shown to positively regulate the expression of genes- and cytokines/chemokines-related to the wound healing process; AuNP-coated chitosan significantly lessened severe sepsis and inflammation, balanced the activities of pro-fibrotic and anti-fibrotic ligands for tissue homeostasis, regulated angiogenesis, and inhibited apoptosis activity, thereby being beneficial for the burn microenvironment. Hence, chitosan alone or in combination with AuNPs represents a prospective therapeutic substance as a burn dressing which might be helpful for burn wound care. This study provides a novel hemostasis dressing for modern warfare that is simple to use by most medical and paramedical personnel handling for burn treatment.

Nanoemulsions prepared from mountain ginseng-mediated gold nanoparticles and silydianin increase the anti-inflammatory effects by regulating NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways

In order to increase the bioavailability of mountain ginseng (MG), gold nanoparticles (MG-AuNPs) were biologically synthesized from MG extract, and an oil-in-water (O/W) nanoemulsion (SMG-AuNEs) was prepared from MG-AuNPs and a phytochemical silydianin. The physical stability of SMG-AuNEs were monitored and optimized in terms of particle size, pH value, zeta potential, and polydispersity index. The chemicostructural properties of the prepared MG-AuNPs and SMG-AuNEs were characterized using various spectrometric and microscopic analyses, such as EDX spectroscopy, FT-IR spectroscopy, and TEM. The effect of both nanomaterial samples on the anti-inflammatory activity and their underlying mechanism was compared in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. SMG-AuNEs did not show toxic effects against RAW 264.7 macrophages, HaCaT keratinocytes, and normal dermal fibroblasts. SMG-AuNEs exhibited significantly higher inhibition of pro-inflammatory genes and proteins, including IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, compared with those of MG-AuNPs and silydianin. Western blotting analysis revealed that the MAPK and NF-κB signalings were highly inhibited by SMG-AuNEs treatment. Hence, this study shows that nano-emulsification of gold nanoparticles prepared from MG is a useful method for augmenting the anti-inflammatory potential of MG. This study may serve as a foundation for using MG as a functional ingredient in anti-inflammatory agents. Our results may implicate the use of nanoemulsions to develop new anti-inflammatory products using MG.

Binary Effects of Gynostemma Gold Nanoparticles on Obesity and Inflammation via Downregulation of PPARγ/CEPBα and TNF-α Gene Expression

Nanoscience is a multidisciplinary skill with elucidated nanoscale particles and their advantages in applications to various fields. Owing to their economical synthesis, biocompatible nature, and widespread biomedical and environmental applications, the green synthesis of metal nanoparticles using medicinal plants has become a potential research area in biomedical research and functional food formulations. Gynostemma pentaphyllum (GP) has been extensively used in traditional Chinese medicine to cure several diseases, including diabetes mellitus (DM). This is the first study in which we examined the efficacy of G. pentaphyllum gold nanoparticles (GP-AuNPs) against obesity and related inflammation. GP extract was used as a capping agent to reduce Au²⁺ to Au⁰ to form stable gold nanoparticles. The nanoparticles were characterized by using UV–VIS spectroscopy, and TEM images were used to analyze morphology. In contrast, the existence of the functional group was measured using FTIR, and size and shape were examined using XRD analysis. In vitro analysis on GP-AuNPs was nontoxic to RAW 264.7 cells and 3T3-L1 cells up to a specific concentration. It significantly decreased lipid accumulation in 3T3-L1 obese and reduced NO production in Raw 264.7 macrophage cells. The significant adipogenic genes PPARγ and CEPBα and a major pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α expression were quantified using RT-PCR. The GP-AuNPs decreased the face of these genes remarkably, revealing the antiadipogenic and anti-inflammatory activity of our synthesized GP-AuNPs. This study represents thorough research on the antiobesity effect of Gynostemma pentaphyllum gold nanoparticles synthesized using a green approach and the efficacy instead of related inflammatory responses.

Gold Nanoparticles Green-Synthesized by the Suaeda japonica Leaf Extract and Screening of Anti-Inflammatory Activities on RAW 267.4 Macrophages

Biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles from medicinal plants has become a modern strategy in biomedical research based on their exclusive properties, including specific targeting, lower toxicity, and biocompatibility. In this study, gold nanoparticles, reduced by the Suaeda japonica leaf extract, were promptly validated by UV–visible (UV–Vis) spectroscopy at 548 nm. No additional reducing agents were needed in this kind of a reduction reaction, which provided evidence of green synthesis. Dynamic light scattering (DLS), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), field-emission transmission electron microscopy (FE-TEM), selected area electron diffraction (SAED), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses were used to illustrate the nanoscale characterization of S. japonica gold nanoparticles (Sj-AuNps). Furthermore, the cytotoxicity effect of Sj-AuNps against the RAW 264.7 cell line was determined by performing an MTT assay. We also investigated Sj-AuNps’ anti-inflammatory properties in LPS-induced murine macrophages. These nanoparticles reduced the generation of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and repressed the expression of the LPS-stimulated inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) genes. This study presents a significant biomedical application of S. japonica AuNps. The anti-inflammatory capabilities of Sj-AuNps underline their potential as possible options for suppressing inflammation-mediated diseases.

Role of nuclear factor-kappa B in bleomycin induced pulmonary fibrosis and the probable alleviating role of ginsenoside: histological, immunohistochemical, and biochemical study

Bleomycin (BLM) is one of anti-cancerous drugs. One of its limitation is the development of pulmonary fibrosis during therapy So, we proposed to examine the outcome of BLM take on the light and electron microscopic design of rat lung. Along with, assessment the probable protecting role of ginsenoside on BLM induced pulmonary changes. In this study, thirty adult male albino rats were comprised and were classified to four clusters; Negative & positive control group, BLM treated group and BLM& ginsenoside treated group. The lung was treated for histological and immunohistochemical (anti-p65) studies. Light microscopic examination of H&E stained sections of BLM treated group showed huge distortion of the lung building. Mallory trichrome stain of this group showed evident deposition of collagen fibers in the markedly thickened interalveolar septa and around intrapulmonary bronchi, bronchioles and blood vessels. Moreover, strong positive staining for nuclear factor (NF)-κB in the wall of bronchiole as well as the thickened interalveolar septa were observed. Ultrastructural inspection of lung of this group revealed muddled lung planning. Marked improvement of the lung structure and marked reduction in NF-κB immunoexpression was appeared in BLM and ginsenoside treated group. So, we concluded that co-administration of ginsenoside with BLM significantly enhanced the histological and morphometric image of the lung.

Gold Nanoparticles: Biosynthesis and Potential of Biomedical Application

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are extremely promising objects for solving a wide range of biomedical problems. The gold nanoparticles production by biological method ("green synthesis") is eco-friendly and allows minimization of the amount of harmful chemical and toxic byproducts. This review is devoted to the AuNPs biosynthesis peculiarities using various living organisms (bacteria, fungi, algae, and plants). The participation of various biomolecules in the AuNPs synthesis and the influence of size, shapes, and capping agents on the functionalities are described. The proposed action mechanisms on target cells are highlighted. The biological activities of "green" AuNPs (antimicrobial, anticancer, antiviral, etc.) and the possibilities of their further biomedical application are also discussed.

Intra-articular treatment with hyaluronic acid associated with gold nanoparticles in a mechanical osteoarthritis model in Wistar rats

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of intra-articular treatment with hyaluronic acid (HA) associated with GNPs in a mechanical model of osteoarthritis induced by median meniscectomy (MM). Fifty Wistar rats (2 months weighing between 250 and 300 g) were used, divided into five groups of 10 animals each: Sham, osteoarthritis (OA), OA + HA, OA + gold nanoparticles (GNPs), and OA + HA + GNPs. Intra-articular treatment was started 30 days after the model was induced, with a frequency of 2 weeks for 60 days. Fifteen days after the last application, the animals were euthanized with the removal of the joint tissue for biochemical and histological analysis. The model used was able to mimic osteoarthritis, characterized by the presence of high levels of proinflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress, and degeneration of joint surfaces (Grade III, according to SCORE OARSI). The isolated use of HA or GNPs provided beneficial results to the joint; however, only the group subjected to the association between HA and GNPs showed the attenuation of oxidative stress and reduced proinflammatory markers, with a simultaneous increase in levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines and growth factors. Upon histological analysis, only the OA + HA + GNPs group achieved the restoration of the thickness of the joint cartilage with reduced damage and return to the intact joint surface. The results found demonstrated that the association of GNPs with HA was able to reverse the deleterious effects caused by the model by inhibiting the progressive degeneration of joint surfaces, representing a promising treatment for osteoarthritis.

Green synthesis of gold nanoparticles for immune response regulation: Mechanisms, applications, and perspectives

Immune responses are involved in the pathogenesis of many diseases, including cancer, autoimmune diseases, and chronic inflammation. These responses are attributed to immune cells that produce cytokines, mediate cytotoxicity, and synthesize antibodies. Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) are novel agents that intervene with immune responses because of their unique physical-chemical properties. In particular, GNPs enhance anti-tumour activity during immunotherapy and eliminate excessive inflammation in autoimmune diseases. However, GNPs synthesized by conventional methods are toxic to living organisms. Green biosynthesis provides a safe and eco-friendly method to obtain GNPs from microbes or plant extracts. In this review, we describe several patterns for green GNP biosynthesis. The applications of GNPs to target immune cells and modulate the immune response are summarized. In particular, we elaborate on how GNPs regulate innate immunity and adaptive immunity, including inflammatory signaling and immune cell differentiation. Finally, perspectives and challenges in utilizing green biosynthesized GNPs for novel therapeutic approaches are discussed.

Nanocarriers in the Enhancement of Therapeutic Efficacy of Natural Drugs

Abstract Since time immemorial, plant derived natural products have been used for the treatment of various human diseases before the intervention of modern medicine. The basis of modern medicine is still being inspired from traditional medicine and therapies. However, despite their tremendous therapeutic potential, these natural drugs often have poor bioavailability, metabolic instability, and aqueous insolubility. These factors greatly impede a natural drug’s commercialization potential as a mainstream medicine. Therefore, the development of nanocarrier drug delivery systems is indispensable in overcoming the various constraints of the bottlenecks which occur with natural drugs. Of particular interest in this review are four plant materials endogenous to China with the common names of barrenwort or horny goat weed (Epimedium), Shu Di Huang (Rehmannia glutinosa, RG), ginseng (Panax ginseng), and Dong Quai or female ginseng (Angelica sinensis, AS), each having been scientifically investigated for a wide range of therapeutic uses as has been originally discovered from the long history of traditional usage and anecdotal information by local population groups in Asia. The integration of natural drugs from the East and nanocarrier drug delivery systems developed from the West is paving the way towards further accurate and efficient medicine therapy. We further discuss the potential benefits of these plants and the enhancement of their therapeutic efficacy by nanotechnology intervention.

Gold Nanomaterial Engineering for Macrophage-Mediated Inflammation and Tumor Treatment

Macrophages play an important role in the body's immune defense process. Phenotype imbalance between M1 and M2 macrophages induced by inflammation-related disorders and tumor can also be reversibly converted to treat these diseases. As exogenous substances, a large part of gold-based nanomaterials interact with macrophages once they enter the body, which provides gold nanomaterials a huge advantage to act as imaging contrasts, active substance carriers, and therapeutic agents for macrophage modulation. By cutting off macrophage recruitment, inhibiting macrophage activities, and modulating M1/M2 polarization, gold nanomaterial engineering exerts therapeutic effects on inflammation-related diseases at target sites. In this review, biological functions of macrophages in inflammation-related diseases are introduced, the effect of physicochemical factors of gold nanomaterials including size, shape, and surface chemistry is focused on the interaction between macrophages and gold nanomaterials, and the applications of gold nanomaterials are elaborated for tracking and treating these diseases by macrophages. The rational and smart engineering of gold nanomaterials allows a promising platform for macrophage-mediated inflammation and tumor imaging and treatment.

Alzheimer's disease treatment: The share of herbal medicines

One of the most frequent forms of dementia in neurological disorders is Alzheimer's disease (AD). It is a chronic neurodegenerative disease characterized by impaired learning and memory. Pathological symptoms as extracellular amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques and intracellular accumulation of neurofibrillary tangles occur in AD. Due to the aging of the population and increased prevalence of AD, discovery of new therapeutic agents with the highest effectiveness and fewer side effect seems to be necessary. Numerous synthetic medicines such as tacrine, donepezil, galantamine, rivastigmine, memantine, glutathione, ascorbic acid, ubiquinone, ibuprofen, and ladostigil are routinely used for reduction of the symptoms and prevention of disease progression. Nowadays, herbal medicines have attracted popular attention for numerous beneficial effects with little side effects. Lavandula angustifolia, Ginkgo biloba, Melissa officinalis, Crocus sativus, Ginseng, Salvia miltiorrhiza, and Magnolia officinalis have been widely used for relief of symptoms of some neurological disorders. This paper reviews the therapeutic effects of phytomedicines with prominent effects against various factors implicated in the emergence and progression of AD.

Phyto-synthesized Gold Nanoparticles as Antitumor Agents

BACKGROUND

Phyto, or plant-derived metal nanoparticles, are an interesting and intensive studied group of green synthesized nanoparticles. In the last decade, numerous medicinal plant extracts were used for the synthesis of stable gold or silver nanoparticles with diverse biological effects, such as antioxidant activity, antimicrobial activity, anti-inflammatory activity, hypoglycemic effect, antitumor activity and catalytic activity.

RESULTS

This review has systematized and discussed information from the last 5 years about the research regarding antitumor/anticancer potential of gold nanoparticles obtained via medicinal plant extracts, with special attention on their selective cytotoxicity on tumor cells and on their mechanism of action, in vitro and in vivo assessments.

CONCLUSION

Much more in vivo and clinical studies are needed before considering phyto-synthesized gold nanoparticles as significant for future medicine.

Anti-neuroinflammatory effects of Ephedra sinica Stapf extract-capped gold nanoparticles in microglia

Background: Combination therapy remains a promising strategy for treating neurodegenerative diseases, although green synthesis of gold nanoparticles for treating chronic neuroinflammation and studying their efficacy in treating neuroinflammation-mediated neurodegenerative diseases is not well assessed.

Results: Here, Ephedra sinica Stapf (ES) extract was used as the reducing, capping, and stabilizing agent for gold nanoparticle synthesis. We developed ES extract-capped gold nanoparticles (ES-GNs) and investigated their anti-neuroinflammatory properties in microglia. ES-GNs displayed maximum absorption at 538 nm in ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy. Dynamic light scattering assessment revealed that ES-GN diameter was 57.6±3.07 nm, with zeta potential value of −24.6±0.84 mV. High resolution–transmission electron microscopy confirmed the spherical shape and average diameter (35.04±4.02 nm) of ES-GNs. Crystalline structure of ES-GNs in optimal conditions was determined by X-ray powder diffraction, and elemental gold presence was confirmed by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy confirmed gold nanoparticle synthesis using ES. Anti-neuroinflammatory properties of ES-GNs on production of pro-inflammatory mediators (nitric oxide, prostaglandin E₂, and reactive oxygen species) and cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated microglia were investigated by ELISA and flow cytometry. ES-GNs significantly attenuated LPS-induced production of pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines, which was related to suppressed transcription and translation of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2, determined by RT-PCR and western blotting. ES-GNs downregulated upstream signaling pathways (IκB kinase-α/β, nuclear factor-κB, Janus-activated kinase /signal transducers and activators of transcription, mitogen-activated protein kinase , and phospholipase D) of pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines in LPS-stimulated microglia. Anti-neuroinflammatory properties of ES-GNs were mediated by ES-GNs-induced AMP-activated protein kinase)-mediated nuclear erythroid 2-related factor 2 /antioxidant response element signaling.

Conclusion: Collectively, these findings provide a new insight on the role of ES-GNs in treating chronic neuroinflammation-induced neurodegenerative diseases.

Effect of the biocontrol bacterium Bacillus amyloliquefaciens on the rhizosphere in ginseng plantings

Panax ginseng is an important medicinal herb due to its ability to strengthen the human immune system. However, due to the increasing needs of ginseng in medicine, the continuous cropping of ginseng has become more common and has resulted in increased problems with fungal decay. Thus, chemical fungicides are commonly used in ginseng plantings, which have caused fungicide residue problems. As an alternative control measure, biocontrol bacteria can be used to manage fungal pathogens. Additionally, these bacteria are environmentally friendly and can also improve stress tolerance in plants. In this study, an antifungal bacterial strain, TB6, that possesses ACC deaminase activity was isolated from the rhizosphere of ginseng plants. This strain was identified as Bacillus amyloliquefaciens. TB6 was applied to 2-year-old ginseng seedlings for a 2-year period, and its impact on the soil rhizosphere was evaluated. The results revealed that strain TB6 decreased fungal abundance and diversity; improved urease, catalase, and phosphatase activities; and decreased the cellulase activity of the rhizosphere soil. In addition, strain TB6 also promoted root growth and increased the fresh weight of ginseng roots, in addition to increasing polyphenol oxidase and catalase activities. These results may have practical implications for the use of biocontrol bacteria in ginseng plantings.

Green synthesis of gold and silver nanoparticles from Cannabis sativa (industrial hemp) and their capacity for biofilm inhibition

Background

Cannabis sativa (hemp) is a source of various biologically active compounds, for instance, cannabinoids, terpenes and phenolic compounds, which exhibit antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties. With the purpose of expanding the auxiliary application of C. sativa in the field of bio-nanotechnology, we explored the plant for green and efficient synthesis of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs).

Methods and results

The nanoparticles were synthesized by utilizing an aqueous extract of C. sativa stem separated into two different fractions (cortex and core [xylem part]) without any additional reducing, stabilizing and capping agents. In the synthesis of AuNPs using the cortex enriched in bast fibers, fiber-AuNPs (F-AuNPs) were achieved. When using the core part of the stem, which is enriched with phenolic compounds such as alkaloids and cannabinoids, core-AuNPs (C-AuNPs) and core-AgNPs (C-AgNPs) were formed. Synthesized nanoparticles were character-ized by UV–visible analysis, transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, dynamic light scattering, Fourier transform infrared, and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight. In addition, the stable nature of nanoparticles has been shown by thermogravimetric analysis and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Finally, the AgNPs were explored for the inhibition of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli biofilms.

Conclusion

The synthesized nanoparticles were crystalline with an average diameter between 12 and 18 nm for F-AuNPs and C-AuNPs and in the range of 20–40 nm for C-AgNPs. ICP-MS analysis revealed concentrations of synthesized nanoparticles as 0.7, 4.5 and 3.6 mg/mL for F-AuNPs, C-AuNPs and C-AgNPs, respectively. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy revealed the presence of flavonoids, cannabinoids, terpenes and phenols on the nanoparticle surface, which could be responsible for reducing the salts to nanoparticles and further stabilizing them. In addition, the stable nature of synthesized nanoparticles has been shown by thermogravimetric analysis and ICP-MS. Finally, the AgNPs were explored for the inhibition of P. aeruginosa and E. coli biofilms. The nanoparticles exhibited minimum inhibitory concentration values of 6.25 and 5 µg/mL and minimum bactericidal concentration values of 12.5 and 25 µg/mL against P. aeruginosa and E. coli, respectively.

Emerging signals modulating potential of ginseng and its active compounds focusing on neurodegenerative diseases

Common features of neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) include progressive dysfunctions and neuronal injuries leading to deterioration in normal brain functions. At present, ginseng is one of the most frequently used natural products. Its use has a long history as a cure for various diseases because its extracts and active compounds exhibit several pharmacological properties against several disorders. However, the pathophysiology of NDDs is not fully clear, but researchers have found that various ion channels and specific signaling pathways might have contributed to the disease pathogenesis. Apart from the different pharmacological potentials, ginseng and its active compounds modulate various ion channels and specific molecular signaling pathways related to the nervous system. Here, we discuss the signal modulating potential of ginseng and its active compounds mainly focusing on those relevant to NDDs.

Cytotoxicity, leishmanicidal, and antioxidant activity of biosynthesised zinc sulphide nanoparticles using Phoenix dactylifera

The synthesis of zinc sulphide nanoparticles (ZnS NPs) using a green approach was explored. The resulting nanoparticles (NPs) were characterised by UV–vis spectroscopy, scanning and transmission electron microscopy, X‐ray diffraction and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The leishmanicidal, cytotoxic and antioxidant activity of the resulting synthesised ZnS NPs (<70 nm) were evaluated against Leishmania major (L. major ) promastigotes and amastigotes by MTT assay and using a macrophage model. The ZnS NPs were able to counteract the effects of oxidative metabolites as demonstrated by the oxidant activity. The IC50 value of butylated hydroxyanisole was 26.04 µg/ml as compared with the IC50 for ZnS NPs (90.95 µg/ml). The NPs displayed no cytotoxicity for the murine macrophaghes as the selectivity index (SI) fell into the safety range (SI ≥ 10). These nanomaterials exhibited good antileishmanial activity against the L. major stages that were comparable to that of Glucantime, the drug of choice. The IC50 values of ZnS NPs and Glucantime against amastigotes were 11.59 ± 2.51 and 4.95 ± 2.51 μg/ml, respectively. The IC50 values for ZnS NPs and Glucantime versus promastigote were 29.81 ± 3.15 and 14.75 ± 4.05 μg/ml, respectively. Further investigation is essential to explore the biological effects of ZnS NPs on animal and/or clinical models.

In vitro anti-inflammatory activity of spherical silver nanoparticles and monodisperse hexagonal gold nanoparticles by fruit extract of Prunus serrulata: a green synthetic approach

Recently, green metal nanoparticles have received global attention owing to their economical synthesis, biocompatible nature, widespread biomedical and environmental applications. Current study demonstrates a sustainable approach for the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (P-AgNPs) and gold nanoparticles (P-AuNPs) from P. serrulata fresh fruit extract. The silver and gold nanoparticles were synthesized in a very rapid, efficient and facile manner, within 50 min and 30 s at 80 °C, respectively. The nanoparticles were characterized by using visual observation, UV-Vis, FE-TEM, EDX, elemental mapping, FT-IR, XRD and DLS, which confirmed the formation of monodispersed, crystalline and stable nanoparticles. Further, we explored these nanoparticles for anti-inflammatory activity through inhibition of downstream NF-κB activation in macrophages (RAW264.7). We demonstrated that the nanoparticles reduced expression of inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PEG₂), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) was attenuated in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 cells. Furthermore, nanoparticles significantly suppressed LPS-induced activation of NF-κB signalling pathway via p38 MAPK in RAW 264.7 cells. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the efficient green synthesis of P-AgNPs and P-AuNPs using P. serrulata fresh fruit extract and its in vitro anti-inflammatory effects. Collectively, our results suggest that P. serrulata fresh fruit extract is a green resource for the eco-friendly synthesis of P-AgNPs and P-AuNPs, which further can be utilized as a novel therapeutic agent for prevention and cure of inflammation due to their biocompatible nature.

Leishmanicidal Activity of Biogenic Fe₃O₄ Nanoparticles

Abstract: Due to the multiplicity of useful applications of metal oxide nanoparticles (ONPs) in medicine are growing exponentially, in this study, Fe₃O₄ (iron oxide) nanoparticles (IONPs) were biosynthesized using Rosemary to evaluate the leishmanicidal efficiency of green synthesized IONPs. This is the first report of the leishmanicidal efficiency of green synthesized IONPs against Leishmania major. The resulting biosynthesized IONPs were characterized by ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The leishmanicidal activity of IONPS was studied via 3-4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. The results showed the fabrication of the spherical shape of monodisperse IONPs with a size 4 ± 2 nm. The UV-visible spectrophotometer absorption peak was at 334 nm. The leishmanicidal activity of biogenic iron oxide nanoparticles against Leishmania major (promastigote) was also studied. The IC₅₀ of IONPs was 350 µg/mL. In this report, IONPs were synthesized via a green method. IONPs are mainly spherical and homogeneous, with an average size of about 4 nm, and were synthesized here using an eco-friendly, simple, and inexpensive method.

Biosynthesis of gold and silver chloride nanoparticles mediated by Crataegus pinnatifida fruit extract: in vitro study of anti-inflammatory activities

This research article investigates the one-pot synthesis of gold and silver chloride nanoparticles functionalized by fruit extract of Crataegus pinnatifida as reducing and stabilizing agents and their possible roles as novel anti-inflammatory agents. Hawthorn (C. pinnatifida) fruits are increasingly popular as raw materials for functional foods and anti-inflammatory potential agents because of abundant flavonoids. The reduction of auric chloride and silver nitrate by the aqueous fruit extract led to the formation of gold and silver chloride nanoparticles. The nanoparticles were further characterized by field emission transmission electron microscopy indicated that CP-AuNps and CP-AgClNps were hexagonal and cubic shape, respectively. According to X-ray diffraction results, the average crystallite sizes of CP-AuNps and CP-AgClNps were 14.20 nm and 24.80 nm. The biosynthesized CP-AgClNps served as efficient antimicrobial agents against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Furthermore, CP-AuNps and CP-AgClNps enhanced the DPPH radical scavenging activity of the fruit extract. Lastly, MTT assay of nanoparticles demonstrated low toxicity in murine macrophage (RAW264.7). Biosynthesized nanoparticles also reduced the production of the inflammatory cytokines including nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2 in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW264.7 cells. Altogether, these findings suggest that CP-AuNps and CP-AgClNps can be used as novel drug carriers or biosensors with intrinsic anti-inflammatory activity.

In situ preparation of water-soluble ginsenoside Rh2-entrapped bovine serum albumin nanoparticles: in vitro cytocompatibility studies

The present study investigates a simple and convenient one-step procedure for the preparation of bovine serum albumin (BSA)-Rh2 nanoparticles (NPs) at room temperature. In this work, ginsenoside Rh2 was entrapped within the BSA protein to form BSA-Rh2 NPs to enhance the aqueous solubility, stability, and therapeutic efficacy of Rh2. The physiochemical characterization by high-performance liquid chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, field emission transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, and thermogravimetric analysis confirmed that the prepared BSA-Rh2 NPs were spherical, highly monodispersed, and stable in aqueous systems. In addition, the stability of NPs in terms of different time intervals, pHs, and temperatures (20°C–700°C) was analyzed. The results obtained with different pHs showed that the synthesized BSA-Rh2 NPs were stable in the physiological buffer (pH 7.4) for up to 8 days, but degraded under acidic conditions (pH 5.0) representing the pH inside tumor cells. Furthermore, comparative analysis of the water solubility of BSA-Rh2 NPs and standard Rh2 showed that the BSA nanocarrier enhanced the water solubility of Rh2. Moreover, in vitro cytotoxicity assays including cell viability assays and morphological analyses revealed that Rh2-entrapped BSA NPs, unlike the free Rh2, demonstrated better in vitro cell viability in HaCaT skin cell lines and that BSA enhanced the anticancer effect of Rh2 in A549 lung cell and HT29 colon cancer cell lines. Additionally, anti-inflammatory assay of BSA-Rh2 NPs and standard Rh2 performed using RAW264.7 cells revealed decreased lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide production by BSA-Rh2 NPs. Collectively, the present study suggests that BSA can significantly enhance the therapeutic behavior of Rh2 by improving its solubility and stability in aqueous systems, and hence, BSA-Rh2 NPs may potentially be used as a ginsenoside delivery vehicle in cancer and inflammatory cell lines.

Bovine serum albumin as a nanocarrier for the efficient delivery of ginsenoside compound K: preparation, physicochemical characterizations and in vitro biological studies

Study on the preparation of BSA–CK NPs by a desolvation method and their application as delivery vehicles in cancer and inflammatory cell lines.