Silymarin nanoemulsion against human hepatocellular carcinoma: development and optimization

Silibinin-Loaded Liposomes: The Influence of Modifications on Physicochemical Characteristics, Stability, and Bioactivity Associated with Dermal Application

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

The aims of the presented study were the development of four types of silibinin-loaded liposomes (multilamellar liposomes-MLVs, sonicated small unilamellar liposomes-SUVs, UV-irradiated liposomes, and lyophilized liposomes) and their physicochemical characterization and biological potential related to skin health benefits.

METHODS

The characterization was performed via the determination of the encapsulation efficiency (EE), particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, conductivity, mobility, storage stability, density, surface tension, viscosity, FT-IR, and Raman spectra. In addition, cytotoxicity on the keratinocytes and antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential were also determined.

RESULTS

UV irradiation significantly changed the rheological and chemical properties of the liposomes and increased their cytotoxic effect. The lyophilization of the liposomes caused significant changes in their EE and physical characteristics, decreased their ABTS and DPPH radical scavenging potential, and increased their potential to reduce the expression of interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β) in cells treated with bacterial lipopolysaccharide. Sonication significantly changed the EE and physical and rheological properties of the liposomes, and slightly increased their cytotoxicity and reduction effect on IL-1β, while the anti-ABTS and anti-DPPH capacity of the liposomes significantly increased. All developed liposomes showed an increasing trend in particle size and a decreasing trend in zeta potential (absolute values) during storage.

CONCLUSIONS

Silibinin-loaded liposomes (MLVs and lyophilized) showed promising antioxidant activity (toward reactive oxygen species generated in cells) and anti-inflammatory effects (reducing macrophage inhibitory factor expression) on keratinocytes and did not lead to a change in their viability. Future perspectives will focus on wound healing, anti-aging, and other potential of developed liposomes with silibinin in sophisticated cell-based models of skin diseases, wounds, and aging.

Pharmaceutical Nanoplatforms Based on Self-nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery Systems for Optimal Transport and Co-delivery of siRNAs and Anticancer Drugs

Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) have the ability to induce selective gene silencing, although siRNAs are vulnerable to degradation in vivo. Various active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are currently used as effective therapeutics in the treatment of cancer. However, routes of administration are limited due to their physicochemical and biopharmaceutical properties. This research aimed to develop oral pharmaceutical formulations based on self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDS) for optimal transport and co-delivery of siRNAs related to cancer and APIs. Formulations were developed using optimal mixing design (Design-Expert 11 software) for SNEDDS loading with siRNA (water/oil emulsion), API (oil/water emulsion), and siRNA-API (multiphase water/oil/water emulsion). The final formulations were characterized physicochemically and biologically. The nanosystems less than 50 nm in size had a drug loading above 48 %. The highest drug release occurred at intestinal pH, allowing drug protection in physiological fluids. SNEDDS-siRNA-APIs showed a twofold toxicity effect than APIs in solution and higher transfection and internalization of siRNA in cancer cells with respect to free siRNAs. In the duodenum, higher permeability was observed with SNEDDS-API than with the API solution, as determined by ex-vivo fluorescence microscopy. The multifunctional formulation based on SNEDDS was successfully prepared, siRNA, hydrophobic chemotherapeutics (doxorubicin, valrubicin and methotrexate) and photosensitizers (rhodamine b and protoporphyrin IX) agents were loaded, using a chitosan-RNA core, and Labrafil® M 1944 CS, Cremophor® RH40, phosphatidylcholine shell, forming stable hybrid SNEDDS as multiphasic emulsion, suitable as co-delivery system with a potent anticancer activity.

Liposome Encapsulation Enhances the Antidiabetic Efficacy of Silibinin

Silibinin has considerable therapeutic potential for the treatment of diabetes through anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties. However, the therapeutic application of silibinin is quite limited due to its poor bioavailability. In the present study, an attempt was made to improve the antidiabetic efficacy of silibinin by its encapsulation in liposomal vesicles. The liposomes with a high encapsulation efficiency of silibinin (96%) and a zeta potential of -26.2 ± 0.6 mV were developed and studied using nicotinamide/streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Administration of silibinin-loaded liposomes to diabetic rats lowered glucose levels, increased insulin levels, and improved pancreatic islet architecture. The anti-inflammatory effect of silibinin-loaded liposomes was demonstrated by a decrease in serum C-reactive protein (CRP) levels and a reduced deposition of collagen fibers in the islets of diabetic rats. Furthermore, silibinin-loaded liposomes were more efficient in lowering glucose, alanine transaminase, triglyceride, and creatinine levels in diabetic rats than pure silibinin. In addition, silibinin-loaded liposomes had a significantly better effect on beta-cell mass and Glut2 glucose receptor distribution in diabetic islets than pure silibinin. The present results clearly show that liposome encapsulation of silibinin enhances its antidiabetic efficacy, which may contribute to the therapeutic benefit of silibinin in the treatment of diabetes and its complications.

Formulation of silymarin surface modified vesicles: In vitro characterization to cell viability assessment

Silymarin (SLR) is a poorly water-soluble bioactive compound with a wide range of therapeutic activities. Nanosized silymarin vesicles (F1-F6) were prepared by the solvent evaporation rehydration method. The silymarin vesicles were evaluated for vesicle size, surface charge, entrapment efficiency, and drug release studies. The optimized SLR lipid vesicle (F3) was further modified with the addition of the cationic polymer chitosan. After that, the modified vesicle (F3C1) was assessed for permeation flux, antimicrobial activity, cell viability, and molecular docking studies. The silymarin vesicles showed nanometric size (<250 nm), low polydispersibility index (<0.05), negative surface charge, and high SLR entrapment (85-95 %). The drug release study result demonstrated a maximum drug release of 91.2 ± 2.8 %. After adding chitosan to the surface, there was a significant change in the size, polydispersibility index, surface charge (positive), and encapsulation efficiency. The drug release was found to be prolonged, and the permeation flux was also increased in comparison to free SLR. A comparative antimicrobial result was observed in comparison to the free SLR and standard drug. The cell viability assay also demonstrated a low IC50 value for F3C1 against the cell line.

Evaluation of Silybin Nanoparticles against Liver Damage in Murine Schistosomiasis mansoni Infection

Silybin (SIB) is a hepatoprotective drug known for its poor oral bioavailability, attributed to its classification as a class IV drug with significant metabolism during the first-pass effect. This study explored the potential of solid lipid nanoparticles with (SLN-SIB-U) or without (SLN-SIB) ursodeoxycholic acid and polymeric nanoparticles (PN-SIB) as delivery systems for SIB. The efficacy of these nanosystems was assessed through in vitro studies using the GRX and Caco-2 cell lines for permeability and proliferation assays, respectively, as well as in vivo experiments employing a murine model of Schistosomiasis mansoni infection in BALB/c mice. The mean diameter and encapsulation efficiency of the nanosystems were as follows: SLN-SIB (252.8 ± 4.4 nm, 90.28 ± 2.2%), SLN-SIB-U (252.9 ± 14.4 nm, 77.05 ± 2.8%), and PN-SIB (241.8 ± 4.1 nm, 98.0 ± 0.2%). In the proliferation assay with the GRX cell line, SLN-SIB and SLN-SIB-U exhibited inhibitory effects of 43.09 ± 5.74% and 38.78 ± 3.78%, respectively, compared to PN-SIB, which showed no inhibitory effect. Moreover, SLN-SIB-U demonstrated a greater apparent permeability coefficient (25.82 ± 2.2) than PN-SIB (20.76 ± 0.1), which was twice as high as that of SLN-SIB (11.32 ± 4.6) and pure SIB (11.28 ± 0.2). These findings suggest that solid lipid nanosystems hold promise for further in vivo investigations. In the murine model of acute-phase Schistosomiasis mansoni infection, both SLN-SIB and SLN-SIB-U displayed hepatoprotective effects, as evidenced by lower alanine amino transferase values (22.89 ± 1.6 and 23.93 ± 2.4 U/L, respectively) than those in control groups I (29.55 ± 0.7 U/L) and I+SIB (34.29 ± 0.3 U/L). Among the prepared nanosystems, SLN-SIB-U emerges as a promising candidate for enhancing the pharmacokinetic properties of SIB.

Synergistic effects of citicoline and silymarin nanomicelles in restraint stress-exposed mice

This study evaluated the effects of citicoline and silymarin nanomicelles (SMnm) in repeated restraint stress (RRS).

METHOD

Mice were exposed to RRS for four consecutive days, 2 hrs. daily. On day 5 of the study, SMnm (25 and 50 mg/kg, i.p.) and citicoline (25 and 75 mg/kg), and a combination of them (25 mg/kg, i.p.) were initiated. On day 18, anxiety-like behavior, behavioral despair, and exploratory behavior were evaluated. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the hippocampus were dissected measuring brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) through Western Blot and ELISA, respectively.

RESULTS

In RR-exposed mice, anxiety-like behavior in the elevated plus maze (EPM) was enhanced by reductions in open arm time (OAT%) P < 0.001, and open arm entry (OAE%) P < 0.001. In the forced swimming test (FST), the immobility increased P < 0.001 while the swimming and climbing reduced P < 0.001. In the open field test (OFT), general motor activity was raised P < 0.05. Further, body weights reduced P < 0.001, and tissue BDNF and pCREB expressions decreased P < 0.001 while TNF-α increased P < 0.001. Conversely, SMnm, citicoline and their combination could reduce anxiety-like behavior P < 0.001. The combination group reduced the depressive-like behaviors P < 0.001. Moreover, body weights were restored P < 0.001. Besides, BDNF and pCREB expressions increased while TNF-α reduced, P < 0.001.

CONCLUSION

The combination synergistically improved emotion-like behaviors, alleviating the inflammation and upregulating the hippocampal BDNF-mediated CREB signaling pathway.

Therapeutic Implications of Dietary Polyphenols-Loaded Nanoemulsions in Cancer Therapy

Cancer is one of the major causes of death worldwide, even the second foremost cause related to non-communicable diseases. Cancer cells typically possess several cellular and biological processes including, persistence, propagation, differentiation, cellular death, and expression of cellular-type specific functions. The molecular picture of carcinogenesis and progression is unwinding, and it appears to be a tangled combination of processes occurring within and between cancer cells and their surrounding tissue matrix. Polyphenols are plant secondary metabolites abundant in fruits, vegetables, cereals, and other natural plant sources. Natural polyphenols have implicated potential anticancer activity by various mechanisms involved in their antitumor action, including modulation of signaling pathways majorly related to cellular proliferation, differentiation, relocation, angiogenesis, metastatic processes, and cell death. The applications of polyphenols have been limited due to the hydrophobic nature and lower oral bioavailability that could be possibly overcome through encapsulating them into nanocarrier-mediated delivery systems, leading to improved anticancer activity. Nanoemulsions (NEs) possess diverse feasible properties, including greater surface area, modifiable surficial charge, higher half-life, site-specific targeting, and formulation imaging capability necessary to create a practical therapeutic impact, and have drawn increased attention in cancer therapy research. This review has summarized and discussed the basic concepts, classification, delivery approaches, and anticancer mechanism of various polyphenols and polyphenols-encapsulated nanoemulsions with improved cancer therapy.

Administration of silymarin in NAFLD/NASH: A systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a chronic liver disease with a high prevalence worldwide and poses serious harm to human health. There is growing evidence suggesting that the administration of specific supplements or nutrients may slow NAFLD progression. Silymarin is a hepatoprotective extract of milk thistle, but its efficacy in NAFLD remains unclear.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Relevant studies were searched in PubMed, Embase, the Cochrane Library, Web of Science, clinicaltrails.gov, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure and were screened according to the eligibility criteria. Data were analyzed using Revman 5.3. Continuous values and dichotomous values were pooled using the standard mean difference (SMD) and odds ratio (OR). Heterogeneity was evaluated using the Cochran's Q test (I2 statistic). A P<0.05 was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

A total of 26 randomized controlled trials involving 2,375 patients were included in this study. Administration of silymarin significantly reduced the levels of TC (SMD[95%CI]=-0.85[-1.23, -0.47]), TG (SMD[95%CI]=-0.62[-1.14, -0.10]), LDL-C (SMD[95%CI]=-0.81[-1.31, -0.31]), FI (SMD[95%CI]=-0.59[-0.91, -0.28]) and HOMA-IR (SMD[95%CI]=-0.37[-0.77, 0.04]), and increased the level of HDL-C (SMD[95%CI]=0.46[0.03, 0.89]). In addition, silymarin attenuated liver injury as indicated by the decreased levels of ALT (SMD[95%CI]=-12.39[-19.69, -5.08]) and AST (SMD[95% CI]=-10.97[-15.51, -6.43]). The levels of fatty liver index (SMD[95%CI]=-6.64[-10.59, -2.69]) and fatty liver score (SMD[95%CI]=-0.51[-0.69, -0.33]) were also decreased. Liver histology of the intervention group revealed significantly improved hepatic steatosis (OR[95%CI]=3.25[1.80, 5.87]).

CONCLUSIONS

Silymarin can regulate energy metabolism, attenuate liver damage, and improve liver histology in NAFLD patients. However, the effects of silymarin will need to be confirmed by further research.

Development and efficacy evaluation of a novel water-in-oil-in-water adjuvant for an inactivated foot-and-mouth disease vaccine

To develop a novel water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) adjuvant and evaluate the effect on foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) inactivated vaccine, in this study, we prepared the novel nano-emulsion adjuvant based on QS-21 (BEA) which is composed of the mixture of mineral oil Marcol52, surfactant Tween80, oleate polyoxyethylene ether ester, polyoxyethylene palmitic acid ester and span80, cosurfactant polyethylene glycol and QS-21. The two-step emulsification method formed the W/O/W nano-emulsion with two films and three-phase structures. The effective particle diameter of the BEA was about 184 nm, and it has good thermal stability. Then, BEA was emulsified as an adjuvant to prepare for the inactivated FMDV vaccine, and BALB/c mice and pigs were immunized to evaluate its safety and immunization effect. The results showed that the inactivated BEA-FMDV vaccine significantly increased BALB/c mice and pigs' antibodies and cytokine IFN-γ in serum. Meanwhile, the pig-neutralizing antibodies were higher than control group. Safety tests found no symptoms of FMD or significant toxic reactions. After 28 days of immunization, the protection rate can reach 93.3%. The BEA vaccine had good stability at 4 °C, no stratification after 180 days, and the content of 146S in the vaccine did not decrease. In conclusion, the BEA prepared in this study is suitable for FMDV inactivated vaccine and is an effective adjuvant.

Research Progress on the Synergistic Anti-Tumor Effect of Natural Anti-Tumor Components of Chinese Herbal Medicine Combined with Chemotherapy Drugs

The application of chemotherapy drugs in tumor treatment has a long history, but the lack of selectivity of drugs often leads to serious side effects during chemotherapy. The natural anti-tumor ingredients derived from Chinese herbal medicine are attracting increased attention due to their diverse anti-tumor effects, abundant resources, and minimal side effects. An effective anti-tumor strategy may lie in the combination of these naturally derived anti-tumor ingredients with conventional chemotherapy drugs. This approach could potentially inhibit tumor growth and the development of drug resistance in tumor cells while reducing the adverse effects of chemotherapy drugs. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the combined therapy strategies integrating natural anti-tumor components from Chinese herbal medicine with chemotherapy drugs in current research. We primarily summarize various compounds in Chinese herbal medicine exhibiting natural anti-tumor activities and the relevant mechanisms in synergistic anti-tumor combination therapy. The focus of this paper is on underlining that this integrative approach, combining natural anti-tumor components of Chinese herbal medicine with chemotherapy drugs, presents a novel cancer treatment methodology, thereby providing new insights for future oncological research.

Co-Delivery of Silymarin and Metformin Dual-Loaded in Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles Synergistically Sensitizes Breast Cancer Cell Line to Mitoxantrone Chemotherapy

The development nano-carriers based therapeutic methods is a potent strategy for enhancing cellular delivery of drugs and therapeutic efficiency in cancer chemotherapy. In the study, silymarin(SLM) and metformin (Met) were co-loaded into mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) and evaluated the synergistic inhibitory effect of these natural herbal compound in improving chemotherapeutic efficiency against MCF7MX and MCF7 human breast cancer cells. Nanoparticles have been synthesized and characterized by FTIR, BET, TEM, SEM, and X-ray diffraction. Drug loading capacity and release determined. The both single and combined form of SLM and Met (free and loaded MSN) were used for MTT assay, colony formation and real time-PCR in cellular study. The synthesis MSN were uniformity in size and shape with particle size of approximately 100 nm and pore size of approximately 2 nm. The Met-MSNs IC30, SLM -MSNs IC50 and dual-drug loaded MSNs IC50 were much lower than of free-Met IC30, free-SLM IC50 and free Met-SLM IC50 MCF7MX and MCF7cells. The co-loaded MSNs treated cells were increased sensitivity to mitoxantrone with the inhibition of BCRP mRNA expressions and could induce apoptosis in MCF7MX and MCF7 cells in comparison with other groups. Colony numbers were significantly reduced in comparison to with other groups in the co-loaded MSNs -treated cells ( ). Our results indicate that Nano-SLM enhances the anti-cancer effects of SLM against human breast cancer cells. The findings of the present study suggest that the anti-cancer effects of both metformin and silymarin enhances against breast cancer cells when MSNs are used as a drug delivery system.

Silymarin-Loaded Tin(IV) Nanoparticles Exhibit Enhanced Bioavailability and Antiproliferative Effects on Colorectal Cancer Cells

Silymarin (SM) exhibits potential therapeutic effects due to having antioxidant activity. However, the low solubility and bioavailability of SM restrict its biological performance. To overcome this limitation, this study aimed to develop a nanoformulation composed of SM and dimethyltindichloride and investigate the effect of SM-loaded Sn nanoparticles on cancer cell growth and survival. An SM-Sn complex was synthesized and then characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), EDS-MAP, dynamic light scattering (DLS), and ζ-potential analysis. After that, the SW480 colorectal cancer cell line was treated with different concentrations of SM and the SM-Sn complex. Cell viability was examined through the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazole-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, analyzing apoptosis, and live-dead assay. The lipid peroxidation rate was assessed through the measurement of thiobarbituric acid (TBA). Intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and cell population in the cell cycle were measured using a flow cytometry instrument. To evaluate the colonization ability of SW480 cells, a colony formation assay was performed. Gene expression analysis was also conducted using a real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique. The findings of this study revealed the effectiveness of the SM-Sn complex in decreasing SW480 cell viability by inducing cell death-associated mechanisms. We found that the SM-Sn complex increases intracellular ROS level and malondialdehyde (MDA) content. It was also revealed that the SM-Sn complex induces cell cycle arrest and the expression of apoptotic genes. In addition, the SM-Sn complex could effectively hinder SW480 cells from constituting colonies. We conclude that the use of tin(IV) as a scaffold for enhanced delivery of SM could be considered an efficient option for inhibiting cancer cell proliferation and survival.

Crisaborole loaded nanoemulgel for the mitigation of atopic dermatitis in mice model

OBJECTIVE

The present work aims to formulate nanoemulgel of crisaborole (CB) and evaluate its effectiveness against 2,4-Di-nitrochlorobenzene induced (DNCB) atopic dermatitis (AD) in mice.

SIGNIFICANCE

AD is a chronic inflammation of the skin affecting the quality of life. CB is a topical PDE4 inhibitor marketed as a 2% ointment. It, however, possesses poor aqueous solubility. An o/w nanoemulsion shall exhibit an enhanced therapeutic effect owing to the increased solubility of CB and an augmented skin penetration. The addition of a gelling agent to form a nanoemulgel further provides ease of application to the patients.

METHODS

Nanoemulsion was prepared by aqueous titration method using caproyl PGMC, cremophore EL and propylene glycol as the oil, surfactant, and cosurfactant respectively. The formulations were characterized by their size, zeta potential and polydispersity index (PDI). 1% Carbopol 934 was used as the gelling agent to formulate nanoemulgel comprising of optimized nanoemulsion (NE 9). Ex vivo skin permeation of the CB nanoemulgel was compared with the CB ointment. Its therapeutic effect was evaluated in Balb/c mice.

RESULTS

NE 9 comprised of 7.49% oil, 37.45% Smix (1:3) and water 55.06%. Its particle size, PDI and zeta potential were 15.45 ± 5.265 nm, 0.098 and -17.9 ± 8.00 mV respectively. The nanoemulgel exhibited a 3-fold higher permeation flux as compared to the ointment. In vivo studies demonstrated that the nanoemulgel provided better therapeutic effect than the ointment.

CONCLUSION

We can thereby conclude that nanoemulgel formulation can be a successful drug delivery strategy for enhancing the therapeutic effect of CB.

Enhancement of in-vitro anti-oral cancer activities of silymarin using dispersion of nanostructured lipid carrier in mucoadhesive in-situ gel

Silymarin (SME) shows multiple therapeutic actions against several cancers, however, low aqueous solubility and poor bioavailability issues restrict its clinical use. In this study, SME was loaded in nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) and further incorporated in mucoadhesive in-situ gel (SME-NLCs-Plx/CP-ISG) for localized treatment of oral cancer. Using a 3³ Box-Behnken design (BBD), an optimized SME-NLC formula was developed with the ratios of solid lipids, surfactant concentration, and sonication time as independent variables, while particle size (PS), polydispersity index (PDI), and % encapsulation efficiency (EE) as dependent variables, resulting in 315.5 ± 0.1 nm PS, 0.341 ± 0.01 PDI, and 71.05 ± 0.05 % EE. Structural studies confirmed the formation of SME-NLCs. SME-NLCs incorporated in-situ gel demonstrated a sustained release for SME, indicating enhanced retention on the buccal mucosal membrane. The in-situ gel containing SME-NLCs showed a marked decrease in IC₅₀ value (24.90 ± 0.45 µM) than SME-NLCs (28.40 ± 0.89 µM) and plain SME (36.60 ± 0.26 µM). The studies demonstrated that Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation potential and SME-NLCs-Plx/CP-ISG induced apoptosis at Sub-G0 phase owing to higher penetration of SME-NLCs led to higher inhibition against human KB oral cancer cells. Therefore, SME-NLCs-Plx/CP-ISG can be the alternative to chemotherapy and surgery with site-specific delivery of SME to oral cancer patients.

Physicochemical Characterization of Chitosan-Decorated Finasteride Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for Skin Drug Delivery

Finasteride is considered the drug of choice for androgenic alopecia and benign prostate hyperplasia. The aim of the study was to formulate nanodrug carriers of finasteride with enhanced retentive properties in the skin. The finasteride was formulated as solid lipid nanoparticles that were decorated with different concentrations of chitosan for improved retentive properties. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) were synthesized by “high-speed homogenization technique” using stearic acid as a solid lipid while PEG-6000 and Tween-80 were used as surfactants. The SLNs were evaluated for particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, drug entrapment efficiency, and drug release behavior. The mean particle size of SLNs was in the range of 10.10 nm to 144.2 nm. The PDI ranged from 0.244 to 0.412 while zeta potential was in the range of 8.9 mV to 62.6 mV. The drug entrapment efficiency in chitosan undecorated formulations was 48.3% while an increase in drug entrapment was observed in chitosan-decorated formulations (51.1% to 62%). The in vitro drug release studies of SLNs showed an extended drug release for 24 hours after 4 hours of initial burst release. The extended drug release was observed in chitosan-coated SLNs in comparison with uncoated nanoparticles. The permeation and retention study revealed higher retention of drug in the skin and low permeation with chitosan-decorated SLNs that ranged from 39.4 μg/cm² to 13.2 μg/cm². TEM images depicted spherical shape of SLNs. The stability study confirmed stable formulations in temperature range of 5°C and 40°C for three months. It is concluded from this study that the SLNs of finasteride were successfully formulated and chitosan decoration enhanced the drug retention in the skin layers. Therefore, these formulations could be used in androgenic alopecia and benign prostate hyperplasia to avoid the side effects, drug degradation, and prolonged use of drug with conventional oral therapy.

A review of nanostructured delivery systems for the encapsulation, protection, and delivery of silymarin: An emerging nutraceutical

Silymarin exhibits biological activities that may promote human health and wellbeing, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer activities. Consequently, it has potential for application as a nutraceutical ingredient in functional foods and supplements. But its application for this purpose is currently limited by its poor water solubility, chemical stability, and bioavailability. The potential of nano-delivery systems to improve the functional performance of silymarin was reviewed in this manuscript. The formation, attributes, and applications of biopolymer-based, lipid-based, surfactant-based, and miscellaneous nanocarriers are discussed. In particular, the impact of the different delivery systems such as biopolymer-based, lipid-based delivery systems on the gastrointestinal fate of silymarin is summarized. The encapsulation in edible nanocarriers can improve the bioavailability of silymarin by enhancing its water-dispersibility, inhibiting its degradation, and increasing its absorption.These nanocarriers may therefore be utilized to incorporate this nutraceutical into functional foods and supplements in a bioavailable form.

A Molecular Insight into the Role of Antioxidants in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Diseases

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) defines fat accumulation in the liver, and it is commonly associated with metabolic syndromes like diabetes and obesity. Progressive NAFLD leads to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and ultimately causes cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, and NASH is currently a frequent cause of liver transplantation. Oxidative stress is often contributed to the progression of NAFLD, and hence, antioxidants such as silymarin, silybin, or silibinin, pentoxifylline, resveratrol, and vitamins A, C, and E are used in clinical trials against NAFLD. Silymarin induces the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα), a fatty acid sensor, which promotes the transcription of genes that are required for the enzymes involved in lipid oxidation in hepatocytes. Silybin inhibits sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 and carbohydrate response element-binding protein to downregulate the expression of genes responsible for de novo lipogenesis by activating AMP-activated protein kinase phosphorylation. Pentoxifylline inhibits TNF-α expression and endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated inflammatory nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activation. Thus, it prevents NAFLD to NASH progression. Resveratrol inhibits methylation at Nrf-2 promoters and NF-κB activity via SIRT1 activation in NAFLD conditions. However, clinically, resveratrol has not shown promising beneficial effects. Vitamin C is beneficial in NAFLD patients. Vitamin E is not effectively regressing hepatic fibrosis. Hence, its combination with antifibrotic agents is used as an adjuvant to produce a synergistic antifibrotic effect. However, to date, none of these antioxidants have been used as a definite therapeutic agent in NAFLD patients. Further, these antioxidants should be studied in NAFLD patients with larger populations and multiple endpoints in the future.

Lipid based nanoparticles as a novel treatment modality for hepatocellular carcinoma: a comprehensive review on targeting and recent advances

Liver cancer is considered one of the deadliest diseases with one of the highest disease burdens worldwide. Among the different types of liver cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma is considered to be the most common type. Multiple conventional approaches are being used in treating hepatocellular carcinoma. Focusing on drug treatment, regular agents in conventional forms fail to achieve the intended clinical outcomes. In order to improve the treatment outcomes, utilizing nanoparticles-specifically lipid based nanoparticles-are considered to be one of the most promising approaches being set in motion. Multiple forms of lipid based nanoparticles exist including liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, microemulsion, nanoemulsion, phytosomes, lipid coated nanoparticles, and nanoassemblies. Multiple approaches are used to enhance the tumor uptake as well tumor specificity such as intratumoral injection, passive targeting, active targeting, and stimuli responsive nanoparticles. In this review, the effect of utilizing lipidic nanoparticles is being discussed as well as the different tumor uptake enhancement techniques used.

The Emerging Role of Nanomedicine in the Management of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: A State-of-the-Art Review

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a common chronic liver disease that can lead to end-stage liver disease needing a liver transplant. Many pharmacological approaches are used to reduce the disease progression in NAFLD. However, current strategies remain ineffective to reverse the progression of NAFLD completely. Employing nanoparticles as a drug delivery system has demonstrated significant potential for improving the bioavailability of drugs in the treatment of NAFLD. Various types of nanoparticles are exploited in this regard for the management of NAFLD. In this review, we cover the current therapeutic approaches to manage NAFLD and provide a review of recent up-to-date advances in the uses of nanoparticles for the treatment of NAFLD.

Systematic review of pharmacokinetics and potential pharmacokinetic interactions of flavonolignans from silymarin

Silymarin is an extract from the seeds (fruits) of Silybum marianum that contains flavonolignans and flavonoids. Although it is frequently used as a hepatoprotective agent, its application remains somewhat debatable, in particular, due to the low oral bioavailability of flavonolignans. Moreover, there are claims of its potential interactions with concomitantly used drugs. This review aims at a systematic summary and critical assessment of known information on the pharmacokinetics of particular silymarin flavonolignans. There are two known major reasons for poor systemic oral bioavailability of flavonolignans: (1) rapid conjugation in intestinal cells or the liver and (2) efflux of parent flavonolignans or formed conjugates back to the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract by intestinal cells and rapid excretion by the liver into the bile. The metabolism of phase I appears to play a minor role, in contrast to extensive conjugation and indeed the unconjugated flavonolignans reach low plasma levels after common doses. Only about 1%-5% of the administered dose is eliminated by the kidneys. Many in vitro studies tested the inhibitory potential of silymarin and its components toward different enzymes and transporters involved in the absorption, metabolism, and excretion of xenobiotics. In most cases, effective concentrations are too high to be relevant under real biological conditions. Most human studies showed no silymarin-drug interactions explainable by these suggested interferences. More interactions were found in animal studies, likely due to the much higher doses administered.

Exploring Nanoemulsions for Prostate Cancer Therapy

Prostate carcinoma is typical cancer. It is the second most common cancer globally. The estimated new cases in 2020 was 191 930 and estimated deaths was 33 330. Age, family history, & genetic factors are major factors that drive prostate cancer. Although, for treating metastatic disease, the major therapies available are radiation,bisphosphonate, and palliative chemotherapy. But the major drawback is therapy is disease-driven and later becomes metastatic and requires treatment. The ability to revolutionize cancer treatment by major targeting vehicles via the exploration of nanoemulsion suggests a potential for cancer treatment. The unique property of a biphasic liquid dosage form called nanoemulsion to reach leaky tumor vasculature is due to its nano-meter oil-droplet size of 20-200 nm. Recent reporting on nanoemulsions disclose their embracing and lay alternative for re-purposing herbal and synthetic drugs and their combination especially for targeting prostate cancer formulating an obtainable nanomedicine. So, this article emphasizes the use of nanoemulsions incorporating therapeutic agents for successful and targeted delivery for prostate cancer.

Advantages and challenges in nanomedicines for chronic liver diseases: A hepatologist's perspectives

Chronic liver diseases (CLD) are responsible for significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. CLD patients are at a high risk of developing progressive liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and subsequent liver failure. To date, there is no specific and effective therapies exist for patients with various forms of CLD. The application of nanotechnology has emerged as a rapidly developing area of interest for the safe and target-specific delivery of poorly aqueous soluble hepatoprotective agents and nucleic acids (siRNA/miRNAs) in CLD. The nanoparticle combination improves bioavailability and plasma stability of drugs with poor aqueous solubility. However, the extent of successful functional delivery of nanoparticles into hepatocytes is often surprisingly low. High Kupffer cells interaction reduces the nanomedicine efficacy. During fibrosis, the extracellular matrix accumulation in the perisinusoidal space restricts nanoparticle delivery to hepatocytes. The availability and uptake of nanoparticles exposure to different cells in the liver microenvironment is as Kupffer cells > sinusoidal endothelial cells > HSCs > hepatocytes. The most widely used strategy to reduce nanoparticles and macrophages interaction is to coat the particle surface with polyethylene glycol. The cationic charged nanoparticles have increased hepatocyte delivery by increased cellular interaction by disrupting the endosomal system via their pH buffering capacity. The immune clearance and toxicity of nanoparticles are mainly unpredictable. Therefore, more elaborate knowledge on exact cellular uptake and intracellular accumulation, trafficking, and endosomal sorting of nanoparticle is the need of the hour to improve the rational carrier design.

Integrating Nanotherapeutic Platforms to Image Guided Approaches for Management of Cancer

Cancer is a leading cause of mortality worldwide, accounting for 8.8 million deaths in 2015. The landscape of cancer therapeutics is rapidly advancing with development of new and sophisticated approaches to diagnostic testing. Treatment plan for early diagnosed patients include radiation therapy, tumor ablation, surgery, immunotherapy and chemotherapy. However the treatment can only be initiated when the cancer has been diagnosed thoroughly. Theranostics is a term that combines diagnostics with therapeutics. It embraces multiple techniques to arrive at comprehensive diagnosis, molecular images and an individualized treatment regimen. Recently, there is an effort to tangle the emerging approach with nanotechnologies, in an attempt to develop theranostic nanoplatforms and methodologies. Theranostic approach to management of cancer offers numerous advantages. They are designed to monitor cancer treatment in real time. A wide variety of theranostic nanoplatforms that are based on diverse nanostructures like magnetic nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, gold nanomaterials, polymeric nanoparticles and silica nanoparticles showed great potential as cancer theranostics. Nano therapeutic platforms have been successful in integrating image guidance with targeted approach to treat cancer.

Date seed extract-loaded oil-in-water nanoemulsion: Development, characterization, and antioxidant activity as a delivery model for rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis is an inflammatory disorder, affecting around 1% of the world population. Antioxidant activity plays important role to overcome the inflammation associated with arthritis. Phoenix dactylifera (date) seeds, generally considered as a waste product or utilized as food for domestic farm animals, have been used as a source of antioxidants at different disease conditions. The aim of the present study was to enhance the release of date seed extract in order to achieve high antioxidant activity. Nanoemulsion of methanolic extract of date seed was prepared by aqueous titration method. The selected formulations were exposed to thermodynamic stability and dispersibility tests. The optimized nanoemulsions were evaluated on the basis of droplet size (23.14 ± 0.055nm), polydispersity index (0.166 ± 0.124), percent transmittance (99.12 ± 0.0163), refractive index (1.36 ± 0.046), viscosity (cP) (12.30 ± 0.75), conductivity (µS/cm) (347.46 ± 1.10), and drug content (%) (99.67 ± 0.11). The in vitro release studies revealed that final optimized formulation has cumulative release of drug (57.51% ± 2.65%), which was more significantly greater as compared to drug suspension (26.44% ± 1.15%). Further in vitro antioxidant activity studies revealed that the developed methanolic extract of date seed-loaded nanoemulsion has more antioxidant potential when compared with methanolic extract.

Herbal and Natural Dietary Products: Upcoming Therapeutic Approach for Prevention and Treatment of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

The most common tumor linked with elevated death rates is considered the hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), sometimes called the malignant hepatoma. The initiation and progression of HCC are triggered by multiple factors like long term alcohol consumption, metabolic disorders, fatty liver disease, hepatitis B and C infection, age, and oxidative stress. Sorafenib is the merely US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drug used to treat HCC. Several treatment methods are available for HCC therapy such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy and adjuvant therapy but they often lead to several side effects. Yet these treatment methods are not entirely adequate due to the increasing resistance to the drug and their toxicity. Many natural products help to prevent and treat HCC. A variety of pathways are associated with the prevention and treatment of HCC with herbal products and their active components. Accumulating research shows that certain natural dietary compounds are possible source of hepatic cancer prevention and treatments, such as black currant, strawberries, plum, grapes, pomegranate, cruciferous crops, tomatoes, French beans, turmeric, garlic, ginger, asparagus, and many more. Such a dietary natural products and their active constituents may prevent the production and advancement of liver cancer in many ways such as guarding against liver carcinogens, improving the effectiveness of chemotherapeutic medications, inhibiting the growth, metastasis of tumor cells, reducing oxidative stress, and chronic inflammation. The present review article represents hepatic carcinoma etiology, role of herbal products, their active constituents, and dietary natural products for the prevention and treatment of HCC along with their possible mechanisms of action.

Flavonolignans: One Step Further in the Broad-Spectrum Approach of Cancer

BACKGROUND

The small chemical class of flavonolignans encompasses unique hybrid molecules with versatile biological activities. Their anticancer effects have received considerable attention, and a large body of supporting evidence has accumulated. Moreover, their ability to interact with proteins involved in drug resistance, and to enhance the effects of conventional chemotherapeutics in decreasing cell viability make them influential partners in addressing cancer.

OBJECTIVE

The review provides an outline of the various ways in which flavonolignans advance the combat against cancer. While the main focus falls on flavonolignans from milk thistle, attention is drawn to the yet, underexplored potential of less known flavonolignan subgroups derived from isoflavonoids and aurones.

METHODS

Proceeding from the presentation of natural flavonolignan subtypes and their occurrence, the present work reviews these compounds with regard to their molecular targets in cancer, anti-angiogenetic effects, synergistic efficacy in conjunction with anticancer agents, reversal of drug resistance, and importance in overcoming the side effects of anticancer therapy. Recent advances in the endeavor to improve flavonolignan bioavailability in cancer are also presented.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant progress has been achieved in detailing the molecular mechanisms of silybin and its congeners in experimental models of cancer. The availability of novel formulations with improved bioavailability, and data from phase I clinical trials in cancer patients provide an encouraging basis for more extensive trials aimed at evaluating the benefits of Silybum flavonolignans in cancer management. On the other hand, further research on the antitumor efficacy of iso-flavonolignans and other subtypes of flavonolignans should be pursued.

Carvacrol nanoemulsion evokes cell cycle arrest, apoptosis induction and autophagy inhibition in doxorubicin resistant-A549 cell line

Carvacrol is a monoterpenoid flavonoid found abundantly in thyme plants. Its physiochemical instability and partial solubility in water is the principal limitation for its industrial use. Hence, we made a carvacrol nanoemulsion (CANE) using ultrasonication method and characterized it by dynamic light scattering (DLS) technique which revealed a negative surface charge (-29.89 mV) with 99.1 nm average droplet size. CANE effectively induced apoptosis in doxorubicin-resistant A549 lung carcinoma cells (A549^DR) evident by the elevated expression of apoptotic proteins such as Bax, Cytochrome C, and Cleaved caspase 3 and 9. Also, CANE displayed cell senescence leading to cell cycle arrest by reducing CDK2, CDK4, CDK6, Cyclin E, Cyclin D1 and enhancing p21 protein expression. In addition, a potential role of CANE in the inhibition of autophagy was noted by evaluating the reduced conversion of LC-3 I to II. Beside this, a down-regulation of important autophagy markers ATG5 and ATG7 and upregulation of p62 were detected in response to CANE. We conclude that the synthesized CANE has potential to cause cell senescence, cell cycle arrest, autophagy inhibition and apoptosis in A549^DR cells and could be used as a potential candidate for lung cancer therapy.