Anagliptin protects neuronal cells against endogenous amyloid β (Aβ)-induced cytotoxicity and apoptosis

Long-term aerobic exercise improves learning memory capacity and effects on oxidative stress levels and Keap1/Nrf2/GPX4 pathway in the hippocampus of APP/PS1 mice

Objective

To examine the effects of long-term aerobic exercise on oxidative stress and learning memory ability of APP/PS1 mice, focusing on the hippocampal Keap1, Nrf2, HO-1, and GPX4 proteins.

Methods

Thirty APP/PS1 double transgenic AD mice were randomly divided into three groups: model group, short-term exercise group, and long-term exercise group, with 10 mice in each group. Male non-transgenic mice of the same age served as the control group. The groups underwent swimming training for 6 weeks and 12 weeks, respectively. After the intervention, cognitive abilities were assessed using the Morris water maze test. Hippocampal tissue samples were analyzed for changes in superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and malondialdehyde (MDA) content. ROS expression was observed using dihydroethidium probe, and Keap1, Nrf2, HO-1, and GPX4 protein levels were detected by Western blot analysis.

Results

Aerobic exercise significantly reduced the escape latency and increased both the time spent in the target quadrant and the number crossing the platform compared to the model group (p < 0.05). In the hippocampus, aerobic exercise significantly reduced the MDA content, while significantly increased SOD activity (p < 0.05). The level of ROS in the hippocampal region was significantly reduced by aerobic exercise (p < 0.05), with decreased Keap1 protein expression of and increased Nrf2, HO-1, GPX4 protein expression (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

Aerobic exercise enhances memory and learning abilities, improves cognitive function, and reduces the oxidative stress levels in the hippocampus of AD mice, which involves in the activation of Keap1/Nrf2/GPX4 pathway.

Ferroptosis: a potential therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease

The most prevalent dementia-causing neurodegenerative condition is Alzheimer's disease (AD). The aberrant buildup of amyloid β and tau hyperphosphorylation are the two most well-known theories about the mechanisms underlying AD development. However, a significant number of pharmacological clinical studies conducted around the world based on the two aforementioned theories have not shown promising outcomes, and AD is still not effectively treated. Ferroptosis, a non-apoptotic programmed cell death defined by the buildup of deadly amounts of iron-dependent lipid peroxides, has received more attention in recent years. A wealth of data is emerging to support the role of iron in the pathophysiology of AD. Cell line and animal studies applying ferroptosis modulators to the treatment of AD have shown encouraging results. Based on these studies, we describe in this review the underlying mechanisms of ferroptosis; the role that ferroptosis plays in AD pathology; and summarise some of the research advances in the treatment of AD with ferroptosis modulators. We hope to contribute to the clinical management of AD.

Mechanism of Zhinao Capsule in Treating Alzheimer’s Disease Based on Network Pharmacology Analysis and Molecular Docking Validation

Objective

This study aimed to determine the active components of Zhinao capsule (ZNC) and the targets in treating Alzheimer's disease (AD) so as to investigate and explore the mechanism of ZNC for AD.

Methods

The active components and targets of ZNC were determined from the traditional Chinese medicine systems pharmacology database (TCMSP). The target genes of AD were searched for in GeneCards. Cytoscape was used to construct an herb-component-target-disease network. A protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed by STRING. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses were performed using the OmicShare. UCSF Chimera and SwissDock were used for molecular docking verification. Finally, four key target genes were validated by Western blotting.

Results

In total, 55 active components, 287 targets of active components, 1197 disease genes, and 134 common genes were screened, which were significantly enriched in 3975 terms of biological processes (BP), 284 terms of cellular components (CC), 433 terms of molecular functions (MF), and 245 signaling pathways. Caspase-3 (CASP3) and beta-sitosterol, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and quercetin, vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) and baicalein, and mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 (MAPK1) and quercetin showed good-to-better docking. Moreover, ZNC not only downregulated CASP3 and TNF-α protein expression but also upregulated the protein expression of VEGFA and MAPK1.

Conclusions

The active components of ZNC, such as beta-sitosterol, quercetin, and baicalein may act on multiple targets like CASP3, VEGFA, MAPK1, and TNF-α to affect T cell receptor (TCR), TNF, and MAPK signaling pathway, thereby achieving the treatment of AD. This study provides a scientific basis for further exploring the potential mechanism of ZNC in the treatment of AD and a reference for its clinical application.

The Role of Mitochondrial Quality Control in Cognitive Dysfunction in Diabetes

Type 2 diabetes (T2DM) is a well known risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease. Mitochondria are the center of intracellular energy metabolism and the main source of reactive oxygen species. Mitochondrial dysfunction has been identified as a key factor in diabetes-associated brain alterations contributing to neurodegenerative events. Defective insulin signaling may act in concert with neurodegenerative mechanisms leading to abnormalities in mitochondrial structure and function. Mitochondrial dysfunction triggers neuronal energy exhaustion and oxidative stress, leading to brain neuronal damage and cognitive impairment. The normality of mitochondrial function is basically maintained by mitochondrial quality control mechanisms. In T2DM, defects in the mitochondrial quality control pathway in the brain have been found to lead to mitochondrial dysfunction and cognitive impairment. Here, we discuss the association of mitochondrial dysfunction with T2DM and cognitive impairment. We also review the molecular mechanisms of mitochondrial quality control and impacts of mitochondrial quality control on the progression of cognitive impairment in T2DM.

Copper oxide nanoparticles promote amyloid-β-triggered neurotoxicity through formation of oligomeric species as a prelude to Alzheimer's diseases

Protein oligomerization is involved in the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). In general, a particle that can accelerate protein oligomerization should be considered a toxic material. Several studies reported the progress of nanoparticles (NPs) such as copper oxide (CuO) in biomedical platforms, however, they may have the ability to promote the protein oligomerization process. Here, we aimed to study the effect of CuO NPs on amyloid β_1-42 (Aβ_1-42) oligomerization and relevant neurotoxicity. CuO NPs were synthesized by precipitation technique and characterized by several methods such as ThT, Congo red, CD spectroscopic methods, and TEM imaging. The outcomes indicated that the fabricated CuO NPs with a size of around 50 nm led to a remarkable acceleration in Aβ_1-42 oligomerization in a concentration-dependent manner through shortening the nucleation step and promoting the fibrillization rate. Moreover, cellular assays revealed that Aβ_1-42 oligomers aged with CuO NPs were more toxic than Aβ_1-42 oligomers untreated against SH-SY5Y cells in triggering cell mortality, membrane leakage, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. In conclusion, this study provides important information about the adverse effects of CuO NPs against proteins in the central nervous system to promote the formation of cytotoxic oligomers.

Protective Effect of Patchouli Alcohol Against SH-SY5Y Cell Injury Induced by Aβ25-35 via the Reduction of Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis

Patchouli alcohol (PA) has multiple pharmacological activities, but its protective effect against SH-SY5Y cell injury induced by Aβ25-35 has not been reported. It has been recorded that phosphatidylinositol 3-hydroxykinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway plays an important role in neuroprotection. The purpose of this study was to investigate the protective effect of PA against SH-SY5Y cell injury induced by Aβ25-35 and its underlying mechanism. The results showed that compared with that in the Aβ25-35-induced injury group, the survival rate of SH-SY5Y cells increased ( P < .01) in the different PA-treated groups and the lactic dehydrogenase activity decreased significantly ( P < .01) in the 10, 20, and 40 μg/mL PA groups; compared with those in the Aβ25-35-induced injury group, the malonyldialdehyde contents in SH-SY5Y cells decreased ( P < .05 or P < .01), while the superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase activities increased significantly ( P < .05 or P < .01) in the different PA-treated groups; compared with those in the Aβ25-35-induced injury group, the apoptosis rates, and the mRNA and protein levels of Caspase-3 and Bax in SH-SY5Y cells decreased ( P < .05 or P < .01), while the mRNA and protein levels of Bcl-2, and phosphorylated Akt (p-Akt) and phosphorylated mTOR protein levels increased significantly ( P < .05 or P < .01) in the different PA-treated groups. The above results indicate that PA can inhibit the oxidative stress and apoptosis of SH-SY5Y cells induced by Aβ25-35 by regulating the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, to protect the SH-SY5Y cells from the injury induced by Aβ25-35.

Anagliptin Protected against Hypoxia/Reperfusion-Induced Brain Vascular Endothelial Permeability by Increasing ZO-1

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury is commonly induced during the treatment of ischemic stroke and is reported to be related to the blood-brain barrier destruction and brain vascular endothelial cell dysfunction. Anagliptin is a novel antidiabetic agent recently reported to protect neurons from oxidative stress. In the present study, we aim to investigate the protective property of anagliptin against oxygen-glucose deprivation and reperfusion (OGD/R)-induced injury on endothelial cells and clarify the potential underlying mechanism.

METHODS

OGD/R modeling was established on bEnd.3 brain endothelial cells. Cell viability was detected using the MTT assay, and the mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) level was measured using the mitoses red staining assay. The endothelial monolayer permeability was determined using an FITC-dextran permeation assay. The expression levels of NOX-4 and ZO-1 were evaluated using qRT-PCR and Western blot assays. The expressions of MLC-2, p-MLC-2, and myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) were determined using Western blot.

RESULTS

First, the decreased cell viability, upregulated NOX-4, and elevated mitochondrial ROS level in the endothelial cells induced by OGD/R were reversed by treatment with anagliptin. Second, the enlarged endothelial permeability and the decreased expression level of ZO-1 in the endothelial cells induced by OGD/R were alleviated by anagliptin. Third, the downregulation of ZO-1 and enlarged brain endothelial monolayer permeability induced by OGD/R were ameliorated by an MLCK inhibitor, ML-7. Lastly, the elevated expressions of MLCK and p-MLC-2 induced by OGD/R were suppressed by anagliptin.

CONCLUSION

Anagliptin protected against hypoxia/reperfusion-induced brain vascular endothelial permeability by increasing the expression ZO-1, mediated by inhibition of the MLCK/MLC-2 signaling pathway.

Studies of anticancer activity in vivo and in vitro behaviors of liposomes encapsulated iridium(III) complex

Iridium(III) complexes have gained great attention in cancer treatment in recent years. In this paper, we designed and synthesized a new iridium(III) complex [Ir(piq)₂(DQTT)](PF₆) Ir1 (piq = 1-phenylisoquinoline, DQTT = 12-(1,4-dihydroquinoxalin-6-yl)-4,5,9,14-tetraazabenzo[b]triphenylene). The Ir1-loaded PEGylated liposomes (Lipo-Ir1) were prepared using the ethanol injection method. The anticancer activity of the complex and Lipo-Ir1 against SGC-7901 (human gastric adenocarcinoma), A549 (human lung carcinoma), HeLa (human cervical carcinoma), HepG2 (human hepatocellular carcinoma), BEL-7402 (human hepatocellular carcinoma), and normal NIH3T3 (mouse embryonic fibroblasts) was tested by the MTT method. The complex Ir1 shows moderate or low cytotoxicity against the selected cancer cells, whereas the Lipo-Ir1 exhibits high anticancer activity toward the same cancer cells. The apoptosis induced by Lipo-Ir1 was assayed by flow cytometry and Lipo-Ir1 induced apoptosis through increasing intracellular reactive-oxygen species levels, decreasing mitochondrial membrane potential, further promoting cytochrome c release and causing the increase of level of intracellular Ca²⁺. Western blot was used to detect the changes in Bcl-2 family protein and PI3K/AKT pathway proteins. The cloning experiments demonstrated that the Lipo-Ir1 can effectively inhibit cell proliferation. In vivo experiments, Lipo-Ir1 inhibited tumor growth in xenograft nude mice, and the percentage of tumor growth inhibition in vivo was 75.70%. Overall, the liposomes Lipo-Ir1 exhibits higher anticancer activity than Ir1 under the same conditions. These results indicated that Lipo-Ir1 may be a valuable resource for cancer therapy.

Rutin-added diet protects silver catfish liver against oxytetracycline-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis

It is unknown whether the flavonoid rutin can protect the silver catfish liver in response to exposure to a known stressor, such as the prophylactic usage of the antimicrobial agent oxytetracycline. Thus, the current study aimed to assess the effect of rutin incorporation into the silver catfish diet formulation on oxytetracycline-induced liver oxidative stress and apoptosis. Fish were split into four groups as follows: control, rutin (1.5 g kg diet^-1), oxytetracycline (0.1 g kg diet^-1) and rutin+oxytetracycline (1.5 g kg diet^-1 and 0.1 g kg diet^-1, respectively). After two weeks of feeding with the different diets (standard, rutin-, oxytetracycline and rutin+oxytetracycline-added diets), fish were euthanized to collect the liver. Although the rutin-added diet was unable to recover glutathione peroxidase activity, ascorbic acid and reduced glutathione (GSH) levels, which were depleted due to oxytetracycline consumption, it markedly diminished the oxidized glutathione (GSSG) content, thus decreasing the GSSG to GSH ratio, an important index of oxidative stress. It also increased glutathione reductase and markedly augmented glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activities, which were declined after oxytetracycline ingestion. Furthermore, the rutin-added diet reestablished superoxide dismutase and catalase activities and reduced lipid peroxidation, nitric oxide and superoxide anion levels as well, all changes resulting from oxytetracycline consumption. Finally, it also prevented oxytetracycline-induced apoptosis through increasing heat shock protein 70 and markedly decreasing high mobility group box 1 and, consequently, reducing cleaved caspase-3 protein levels. Therefore, in conclusion, the incorporation of this flavonoid to the silver catfish diet protected the liver against oxytetracycline-induced liver oxidative stress and apoptosis.

LongShengZhi Capsule Attenuates Alzheimer-Like Pathology in APP/PS1 Double Transgenic Mice by Reducing Neuronal Oxidative Stress and Inflammation

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia in the elderly. It may be caused by oxidative stress, inflammation, and cerebrovascular dysfunctions in the brain. LongShengZhi Capsule (LSZ), a traditional Chinese medicine, has been approved by the China Food and Drug Administration for treatment of patients with cardiovascular/cerebrovascular disease. LSZ contains several neuroprotective ingredients, including Hirudo, Astmgali Radix, Carthami Flos (Honghua), Persicae Semen (Taoren), Acori Tatarinowii Rhizoma (Shichangpu), and Acanthopanax Senticosus (Ciwujia). In this study, we aimed to determine the effect of LSZ on the AD process. Double transgenic mice expressing the amyloid-β precursor protein and mutant human presenilin 1 (APP/PS1) to model AD were treated with LSZ for 7 months starting at 2 months of age. LSZ significantly improved the cognition of the mice without adverse effects, indicating its high degree of safety and efficacy after a long-term treatment. LSZ reduced AD biomarker Aβ plaque accumulation by inhibiting β-secretase and γ-secretase gene expression. LSZ also reduced p-Tau expression, cell death, and inflammation in the brain. Consistently, in vitro, LSZ ethanol extract enhanced neuronal viability by reducing L-glutamic acid-induced oxidative stress and inflammation in HT-22 cells. LSZ exerted antioxidative effects by enhancing superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase expression, reduced Aβ accumulation by inhibiting β-secretase and γ-secretase mRNA expression, and decreased p-Tau level by inhibiting NF-κB-mediated inflammation. It also demonstrated neuroprotective effects by regulating the Fas cell surface death receptor/B-cell lymphoma 2/p53 pathway. Taken together, our study demonstrates the antioxidative stress, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects of LSZ in the AD-like pathological process and suggests it could be a potential medicine for AD treatment.

The effects of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists on cognitive functions in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis

AIMS

The effects of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors (DPP-4 inhibitors/DPP-4I) and glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RA) on cognition in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) remain controversial. We aimed to explore this clinical issue through a systematic review and meta-analysis.

METHODS

PubMed, EMBASE and the Cochrane Library were searched, and data were expressed as mean difference (MD) or hazard ratio (HR)/odds ratio (OR) with a 95% confidence interval (CI). Heterogeneity was assessed using the Chi-squared test and the I² statistic. The study was registered with PROSPERO (ID: CRD42019138777).

RESULTS

Eleven studies (n = 304,258 T2DM patients) were included in our review. In the DPP-4I group, six studies were enrolled to estimate ΔMini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scores from baseline to the final evaluations after DPP-4I treatment, which showed no statistical difference (MD 0.20; 95% CI - 0.75 to 1.15, p = 0.68). ΔMMSE scores in the DPP-4I group and the other antidiabetic groups were compared, revealing no statistical difference (MD 0.57; 95% CI - 0.05 to 1.19, p = 0.07). Two cohort studies were pooled to determine the HRs for dementia, showing a lower risk of dementia after DPP-4I treatment (HR 0.52; 95% CI 0.29-0.93, p = 0.03). In the GLP-1 analogs group, two studies were included, one of which revealed a downward trend in the risk of dementia after GLP-1 analog treatment, while the other revealed no significant difference after incretins treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Currently there is not enough irrefutable evidence to support the hypothesis of positive effects of incretins on cognition. Further clinical studies need to be performed.

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Oxidase and Neurodegenerative Diseases: Mechanisms and Therapy

Significance: The growing incidence of neurodegenerative diseases significantly impacts the individuals who suffer from these disorders and is a major health concern globally. Although the specific mechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases are still far from being acknowledged, it is becoming clear that oxidative stress and neuroinflammation are critical contributing factors to the progression of neurodegeneration. Thus, it is conceivable that the inhibition of oxidative stress and neuroinflammation may represent promising therapeutic targets for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Recent Advances: Recently, the strategy for neurodegenerative disease therapy has shifted from the use of antioxidants and conventional anti-inflammatory targets to upstream mediators due to the failure of most antioxidants and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in clinical trials. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidases (NOXs), a family of superoxide-producing enzyme complexes, have been identified as an upstream factor that controls both oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. Genetic inactivation or pharmacological inhibition of NOX enzymes displays potent neuroprotective effects in a broad spectrum of neurodegenerative disease models. Critical Issues: The detailed mechanisms of how NOX enzymes regulate oxidative stress and neuroinflammation still remain unclear. Moreover, the currently available inhibitors of NOX enzymes exhibit nonspecificity, off-target effects, unsuitable pharmacokinetic properties, and even high toxicity, markedly limiting their potential clinical applications. Future Directions: This review provides novel insights into the roles of NOXs in neurodegenerative pharmacology, and indicates the types of NOX enzyme inhibitors that should be identified and developed as candidates for future applications, which might reveal novel neurodegenerative disease therapies based on NOXs.

Can dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors treat cognitive disorders?

The linkage of neurodegenerative diseases with insulin resistance (IR) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), including oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, excessive inflammatory responses and abnormal protein processing, and the correlation between cerebrovascular diseases and hyperglycemia has opened a new window for novel therapeutics for these cognitive disorders. Various antidiabetic agents have been studied for their potential treatment of cognitive disorders, among which the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors have been investigated more recently. So far, DPP-4 inhibitors have demonstrated neuroprotection and cognitive improvements in animal models, and cognitive benefits in diabetic patients with or without cognitive impairments. This review aims to summarize the potential mechanisms, advantages and limitations, and currently available evidence for developing DPP-4 inhibitors as a treatment of cognitive disorders.