Antecedents of Purpose in Life: Evidence from A Lagged Exposure-Wide Analysis

Exploring novel determinants of exercise behavior: a lagged exposure-wide approach

Many middle-aged to older adults do not engage in regular exercise at all, despite its importance for healthy aging. Extensive research grounded in behavioral and social science theories has identified numerous determinants of exercise. However, few studies used an exposure-wide approach, a data-driven exploratory method particularly useful for identifying novel determinants.

METHODS

We used data from 13 771 participants in the Health and Retirement Study, a diverse, national panel study of adults aged >50 years in the United States, to evaluate 62 candidate determinants of exercise participation. Candidate predictors were drawn from the following domains: health behaviors, physical health, psychological well-being, psychological distress, social factors, and work. We used Poisson regression with robust error variance to individually regress exercise in the outcome wave (t2: 2014/2016) on baseline candidate predictors (at t1: 2010/2012) controlling for all covariates in the previous wave (t0: 2006/2008).

RESULTS

Some physical health conditions (eg, physical functioning limitations and lung disease), psychological factors (eg, health mastery, purpose in life, and positive affect), and social factors (eg, helping others, religious service attendance, and volunteering) were robustly associated with increased subsequent exercise. Among factors related to psychological distress, perceived constraints stood out as a factor in reducing exercise.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified potentially novel exercise determinants, such as helping friends/neighbors/relatives, religious attendance, and volunteering, that have not been captured using a theory-driven approach. Future studies validating these findings experimentally in midlife and older adults are needed.

Purpose in Life and Cognitive Function in the Malaysian Ageing and Retirement Study

OBJECTIVES

Evidence for the association between purpose in life and cognitive health is primarily from North American and European samples. This study evaluates this association in a large sample from Malaysia, an upper-middle-income country in Southeast Asia.

METHODS

Participants (N = 5,579) from the Malaysian Ageing and Retirement Study reported on their purpose in life and subjective memory and were administered tasks that measured episodic memory, verbal fluency, and overall cognitive function.

RESULTS

Purpose was associated with better subjective memory (β=.13), episodic memory (β=.06), verbal fluency (β=.12), and overall cognitive function (β=.07) (ps < .001). The associations were similar across sex and retirement status; purpose was more strongly related to subjective memory and overall cognitive function among older participants. Behavioral/social factors accounted for up to one-third of the associations, but all associations remained statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

The positive association between purpose and cognition generalizes to a middle-income country in Southeast Asia. Similar to Western samples, behavioral and social factors accounted for part but not all the association. More research is needed in lower- and other middle-income countries to fully evaluate generalizability.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

Purpose may help support healthier cognitive aging across diverse populations and be a useful target to improve cognitive aging outcomes.

Bidirectional associations between meaning in life and the health, emotional ill-being and daily life functioning outcomes among older adults

OBJECTIVE

Meaning and purpose in life are recognised health determinants. Evidence on the factors contributing to the experience of meaning and purpose in life is limited. The bidirectional associations between the experience of meaning in life and physical health, emotional ill-being and daily life functioning from a 6-year perspective are examined.

METHODS AND MEASURES

Longitudinal data from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) were analysed using generalised estimating equations. The sample included 16,361 middle-aged and older adults from 13 countries.

RESULTS

Living a meaningful life was found to be associated with subsequent reduced risks of depression, loneliness, limitations in activities of daily living, and heart attack (at the 6-year follow-up). It was also found that prior experience of depression, loneliness and limited activities of daily living were associated with subsequent reduced sense of meaningful life. These associations were independent of demographics, socioeconomic status, personality, prior history of diseases and lifestyle. The sensitivity analyses provided evidence for the robustness of these associations.

CONCLUSIONS

Evidence for health practitioners and policymakers on factors that may hamper the development and maintenance of meaningful life as well as on the role of sense of meaning in life for healthy aging was presented.

Important Correlates of Purpose in Life in a Diverse Population-Based Cohort: A Machine Learning Approach

BACKGROUND

Purpose-in-life (PiL) refers to the tendency to derive meaning and purpose from daily life experiences. Individuals with higher PiL were more likely to have better physical, mental, and cognitive health in prospective studies. Here, we aimed to identify important correlates of PiL among people of diverse backgrounds.

METHODS

Participants were recruited by the population-based Health and Retirement Study and provided information on 34 different sociodemographic and psychosocial factors through psychometrically validated measures. To identify important correlates of PiL, we employed regularized regression implemented by Elastic Net on the entire cohort as well as among self-identified black participants only and white participants only, respectively.

RESULTS

A total of 6,620 participants were included in this study, among whom 913 were black and 5,707 were white. We identified 12 and 23 important sociodemographic and psychosocial correlates of PiL among black and white participants, respectively. Notably, all the 12 correlates in black participants were also correlates among white participants. Interestingly, when we examined both black and white participants together, being black was associated with having higher PiL. The correlates with the largest effect on PiL that were shared among black and white participants were hopelessness, perceived constraint on personal control, and self-mastery.

CONCLUSION

Several sociodemographic and psychosocial factors most strongly associated with PiL were shared among black and white participants. Future studies should investigate whether interventions targeting correlates of PiL can lead to higher sense of life purpose in participants of diverse backgrounds.

Biopsychosocial Factors That Influence the Purpose in Life among Working Adults and Retirees

This study aimed to identify and characterize biopsychosocial factors that impact the purpose in life (PIL) among adults that are working or already retired. This cross-sectional study includes a sample of 1330 participants, of whom 62.2% were female, with ages ranging from 55 and 84 years, with a mean of 61.93 years and a standard deviation of 7.65. Results suggest that the education level, stress, spirituality (religion) and optimism, social support from friends, and quality of life related to physical health seem to contribute positively to the PIL for both groups. However, some variables such as age, marital status and environmental quality of life help explain the PIL of retired people and the quality of life related to social support helps explain the PIL of working adults. Overall, the reported findings suggest that the purpose in life is strongly related to physical, psychological, social and environmental health factors. It is highlighted that working adults and retired people have their purpose in life related to similar factors and others specific to each life stage, suggesting the need for crucial interventions to promote a healthier and more positive aging process.

Mind-stimulating leisure activities: Prospective associations with health, wellbeing, and longevity

Introduction

This study examines prospective associations within a 6-year perspective between three mind-stimulating leisure activities (relaxed and solitary: reading; serious and solitary: doing number and word games; serious and social: playing cards and games) and 21 outcomes in (1) physical health, (2) wellbeing, (3) daily life functioning, (4) cognitive impairment, and (5) longevity domains.

Methods

Data were obtained from 19,821 middle-aged and older adults from 15 countries participating in the Survey of Health, Ageing, and Retirement in Europe (SHARE). Temporal associations were obtained using generalized estimating equations. All models were controlled for prior sociodemographic, personality, lifestyle factors, health behaviors, and pre-baseline leisure activity values and all outcome variables. The Bonferroni correction was used to correct for multiple testing. E-values were calculated to examine the sensitivity of the associations to unmeasured confounding. Secondary analyses (1) under the complete case scenario, (2) after excluding respondents with health conditions, and (3) using a limited set of covariates were conducted to provide evidence for the robustness of the results.

Results

The relaxed solitary activity of reading almost daily was prospectively associated with a lower risk of depression, experiencing pain, daily functioning limitations, cognitive impairment, lower loneliness scores, and more favorable wellbeing outcomes. Engaging in serious solitary leisure activities almost daily was prospectively associated with a lower risk of depression, feeling full of energy, and a lower risk of death by any cause. Occasionally engaging in these activities was prospectively associated with greater optimism and a lower risk of cognitive impairment. Engaging in serious social activities was prospectively associated with greater happiness, lower scores on the loneliness scale, a lower risk of Alzheimer's disease, and an increased risk of cancer. Additionally, occasionally engaging in serious social activities was associated with greater optimism and lower risk of depression, pain, and mobility limitations. These associations were independent of demographics, socioeconomic status, personality, history of diseases, and prior lifestyle. The sensitivity analyses provided substantial evidence for the robustness of these associations.

Discussion

Mind-engaging leisure activities can be considered a health and wellbeing resource. Practitioners may consider them tools that help middle-aged and older adults maintain their health and quality of life.

What makes life purposeful? Identifying the antecedents of a sense of purpose in life using a lagged exposure-wide approach

Aims

Prior research documents strong associations between an increased sense of purpose in life and improved health and well-being outcomes. However, less is known about candidate antecedents that lead to more purpose among older adults.

Methods

We used data from 13,771 participants in the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) — a diverse, national panel study of adults aged >50 in the United States, to evaluate a large number of candidate predictors of purpose. Specifically, using linear regression with a lagged exposure-wide approach, we evaluated if changes in 61 predictors spanning physical health, health behaviors, and psychosocial well-being (between t₀;2006/2008 and t₁;2010/2012) were associated with purpose four years later (t₂;2014/2016) after adjustment for a rich set of baseline covariates.

Results

Some health behaviors (e.g., physical activity ≥1x/week [β = 0.14, 95% CI: 0.09, 0.19]), physical health conditions (e.g., stroke [β = −0.25, 95% CI: −0.40, −0.10]), and psychosocial factors (e.g., depression [β = −0.21, 95% CI: −0.27, −0.15]) were associated with subsequent purpose four years later. However, there was little evidence that other health behaviors, physical health conditions, and psychosocial factors such as smoking, drinking, or financial strain, were associated with subsequent purpose.

Conclusions

Several of our candidate predictors such as volunteering, time with friends, and physical activity may be important targets for interventions and policies aiming to increase purpose among older adults. However, some effect sizes were modest and contrast with prior work on younger populations, suggesting purpose may be more easily formed earlier in life.

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Factors that lead to increased purpose in life in older adults remain unclear.

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We leveraged a large and prospective cohort of US adults aged >50.

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We evaluated associations between 61 predictors and subsequent purpose in life.

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Some health/well-being factors were associated with purpose in life 4 years later, but not others.

Can adherence to moral standards and ethical behaviors help maintain a sense of purpose in life? Evidence from a longitudinal study of middle-aged and older adults

Personal factors, such as character strengths, have been shown to be favorably associated with concurrent and future well-being. Positive associations have also been reported between purpose in life and concurrent and subsequent health and well-being. Evidence on antecedents of purpose in life is, however, limited. This study examines whether the adherence to moral standards and ethical behaviors (AMSEB) is associated with subsequent purpose in life. Data from the Health and Retirement Study obtained from a sample of 8,788 middle-aged and older adults in the US (mean age = 64.9 years, age range 50–96 years) were used. The prospective associations between AMSEB and purpose in life were examined using generalized linear models. A rich set of covariates and prior outcomes were used as controls to reduce the risk of reverse causation. The robustness analyses included computation of sensitivity measures, E-values, and running a set of secondary analyses conducted on subsamples of respondents and using a limited set of covariates. It was found that middle-aged and older adults who demonstrated higher AMSEB reported a higher sense of purpose in life after the 4-year follow-up period. This association was found to be monotonic, moderately robust to potential unmeasured confounding and independent of demographics, prior socioeconomic status, prior health conditions, and health behaviors as well as prior psychological predispositions such as dispositional optimism and life satisfaction. It was also robust to missing data patterns. Policymakers and health practitioners may consider a predisposition to adherence to moral standards and ethical behaviors as a potential intervention target, as its improvement and/or maintenance has the potential to improve longevity and to help promote healthy and purposeful aging.

Work Expectations, Depressive Symptoms, and Passive Suicidal Ideation Among Older Adults: Evidence From the Health and Retirement Study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Employment and work transitions (e.g., retirement) influence mental health. However, how psychosocial contexts such as anticipation and uncertainty about work transitions, irrespective of the transitions themselves, relate to mental health is unclear. This study examined the relationships of work expectations with depressive symptoms, major depression episodes (MDE), and passive suicidal ideation over a 10-year period among the "Baby Boom" cohort of the Health and Retirement Study.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Analysis was limited to 13,247 respondents aged 53-70 observed from 2008 to 2018. Past-year depressive symptoms, MDE, and passive suicidal ideation were indexed using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview-Short Form. Expectations regarding working full-time after age 62 were assessed using a probability scale (0%-100%). Mixed-effect logistic regressions with time-varying covariates were used to assess the relationship of work expectations with mental health, accounting for demographics, health status, and functioning, and stratified by baseline employment status.

RESULTS

At baseline, higher work expectations were inversely associated with depressive symptoms. Longitudinally, higher expectations were associated with lower odds of depressive symptoms (odds ratio [OR] = 0.93, 95% CI: 0.91, 0.94). This association was more pronounced among respondents not working at baseline (ORNot working = 0.93 vs ORWorking = 0.96). Greater uncertainty (i.e., expectations near 50%) was also inversely associated with depressive symptoms. Results were similar for past-year MDE and passive suicidal ideation.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Expectations (overall likelihood and uncertainty), as indicators of psychosocial context, provide insight into the processes that link work transitions with depression risk.

Sense of purpose in life and concurrent loneliness and risk of incident loneliness: An individual-participant meta-analysis of 135,227 individuals from 36 cohorts

BACKGROUND

Sense of purpose, the feeling that one's life is goal-oriented and driven, tends to be protective for psychological health. Less is known about its relation with social health, particularly loneliness. We test whether the cross-sectional association between purpose and loneliness is replicable and whether purpose protects against the development of incident loneliness over time.

METHODS

Participants from 36 cohorts (total N = 135,227; age range 18-109) reported on their sense of purpose, loneliness, and psychological distress. Follow-up measures of loneliness were available in 28 cohorts that ranged from six weeks to 15 years. Prospective, random-effect meta-analysis was used to summarize the cross-sectional and longitudinal associations from each cohort.

RESULTS

Sense of purpose was associated significantly with less loneliness in all 36 cohorts, controlling for sociodemographic factors (meta-analytic mean effect estimate = -0.31, 95% CI = -0.34, -0.29, p < .001). This association was stronger among participants experiencing concurrent severe psychological distress. Sense of purpose was protective against the development of new incident loneliness (meta-analytic mean hazard ratio estimate = 0.85, 95% CI = 0.82, 0.87, p < .001). Age did not moderate any of the associations.

LIMITATIONS

Limitations include the lack of lower-income countries. The mechanisms that explain this association also need to be identified in future research.

CONCLUSIONS

Sense of purpose is associated with less loneliness and with protection against developing loneliness over time, associations that replicated across cohorts from North America, South America, Europe, and the Middle East. Sense of purpose may be a useful target of intervention to prevent or reduce loneliness, especially among individuals suffering from psychological distress.

Role of Libraries in Human Flourishing: Adolescents' Motivational Orientation for Occupation

Introduction: Adolescence is crucial for human flourishing and strongly influences having meaning in life. We investigated the association between local public library density as a shared resource and motivational orientation toward their occupation in Japanese adolescents. Methods: A longitudinal study was conducted using data from a nationwide birth cohort survey in Japan (n = 12,184). At age 7, their caregivers answered questionnaires on children including the number of books read. Library density (low, moderate, or high) in each municipality was obtained from national statistics. At age 15, the adolescents indicated whether they had decided on an occupation and selected motivational orientations from among intrinsic (own ability and interest), extrinsic (high earnings, social class, or job stability), and altruistic (social contribution) orientations. Multilevel linear probability models were fitted, adjusting for confounders, including household socioeconomic status and city size. Results: Intrinsic, extrinsic, and altruistic motivations for desired occupation were reported by 40.7%, 31.9% and 41.8% of participants, respectively. Living in a municipality with a high library density at age 7 was associated with having intrinsic motivation at age 15 than low density by 3.1 percentage points (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.35, 5.85). The association was more prominent for those with lower income (P for interaction = 0.026). Neither extrinsic nor altruistic motivations were associated with library density (coefficient: −0.13; 95% CI: −2.81, 2.56; coefficient: 0.08; 95% CI: −2.72, 2.88 percentage points, respectively). Conclusions: Developing libraries in communities could encourage intrinsic motivation in adolescents, specifically for those in low-income households.

Sense of Purpose in Life and Subsequent Physical, Behavioral, and Psychosocial Health: An Outcome-Wide Approach

PURPOSE

Growing evidence indicates that a higher sense of purpose in life (purpose) is associated with reduced risk of chronic diseases and mortality. However, epidemiological studies have not evaluated if change in purpose is associated with subsequent health and well-being outcomes.

DESIGN

We evaluated if positive change in purpose (between t₀; 2006/2008 and t₁;2010/2012) was associated with better outcomes on 35 indicators of physical health, health behaviors, and psychosocial well-being (at t₂;2014/2016).

SAMPLE

We used data from 12,998 participants in the Health and Retirement study-a prospective and nationally representative cohort of U.S. adults aged >50.

ANALYSIS

We conducted multiple linear-, logistic-, and generalized linear regressions.

RESULTS

Over the 4-year follow-up period, people with the highest (versus lowest) purpose had better subsequent physical health outcomes (e.g., 46% reduced risk of mortality (95% CI [0.44, 0.66])), health behaviors (e.g., 13% reduced risk of sleep problems (95% CI [0.77, 0.99])), and psychosocial outcomes (e.g., higher optimism (β = 0.41, 95% CI [0.35, 0.47]), 43% reduced risk of depression (95% CI [0.46, 0.69]), lower loneliness (β = -0.35, 95% CI [-0.41, -0.29])). Importantly, however, purpose was not associated with other physical health outcomes, health behaviors, and social factors.

CONCLUSION

With further research, these results suggest that sense of purpose might be a valuable target for innovative policy and intervention work aimed at improving health and well-being.

The bidirectional relationship between sense of purpose in life and physical activity: a longitudinal study

People with a greater sense of purpose in life may be more likely to engage in physical activity. At the same time, physical activity can contribute to a sense of purpose in life. The present research tests these hypotheses using a cross-lagged panel model in a nationally representative, longitudinal panel of American adults (N = 14,159, M_age = 68). An increase in sense of purpose in life was associated with higher physical activity four years later, above and beyond past activity levels. Physical activity was positively associated with future levels of sense of purpose in life, controlling for prior levels of purpose in life. Results held in a second national panel from the US with a nine-year follow-up (N = 4,041, M_age = 56). The findings demonstrate a bidirectional relationship between sense of purpose in life and physical activity in large samples of middle-aged and older adults tracked over time.