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Robinson J, Cumming S, Salter J, Toner J, Towlson C. A new method to identify key match-play behaviours of young soccer players: Development of the Hull Soccer Behavioural Scoring Tool. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0295953. [PMID: 38457396 PMCID: PMC10923421 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0295953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 03/10/2024] Open
Abstract
The aim of this research was to assess the validity and reliability of a newly developed scoring tool, designed for monitoring youth soccer players during match-play performance to support coaches/scouts with the talent identification process. The method used to design the Hull Soccer Behavioural Scoring Tool comprised of a five-stage process of (i) conducting an initial literature review to establish content validity (ii) gaining content validity through a cross sectional online survey (iii) establishing face validity via expert coach feedback (iv) conducting inter-rater reliability tests and (v) intra-rater reliability tests. In stage two, twenty-two soccer academy practitioners completed an online survey, which revealed that player behaviours such as resilience, competitiveness, and decision making were all valued as the most important behavioural characteristics by practitioners (90.9%), whilst X-factor was valued as least important by a significant amount (27.2%). Stages three to five of the testing procedure included a sample of four academy coaches not involved in the preceding stage. Twenty male collegiate soccer players (under-16 to under-18) involved in the study took part in four versus four small-sided games (SSG) in a 'round-robin' tournament across three weeks which accumulated 14 SSG's, 100-140 minutes of playing time and 70-98 individual player grades. Two of the four academy coaches watched the SSG's and used the Hull Soccer Behavioural Scoring Tool to assess live evidence of desirable player behaviours, which was subsequently followed by retrospective video analysis for intra-rater reliability testing. The remaining two academy coaches watched the same SSG retrospective video footage to test for inter-rater reliability. Reliability results revealed an acceptable level of agreement with scores between 81.25%-89.9% for inter-rater whilst intra-rater provided scores between 80.35%-99.4%. Preliminary evidence here suggests that the Hull Soccer Behavioural Scoring Tool is both a valid and reliable method to assess desirable player behaviours during talent identification processes. Thus, youth soccer practitioners and researchers should seek to test and further validate the tool in order to confirm its utility as a means of measuring behavioural characteristics of youth soccer players.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Robinson
- University of Hull, School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, Hull, United Kingdom
| | - Sean Cumming
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Jamie Salter
- York St John University, School of Science, Technology and Health, York, United Kingdom
| | - John Toner
- University of Hull, School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, Hull, United Kingdom
| | - Chris Towlson
- University of Hull, School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, Hull, United Kingdom
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Bolckmans S, Perquy K, Starkes JL, Memmert D, Helsen WF. The relationships between relative age effect, personality constructs and achievement level in soccer. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1226599. [PMID: 38022782 PMCID: PMC10667700 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1226599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Youth soccer academies are challenged with the constant recruitment process of young talented players to select those who will achieve long-term success as an athlete. Youth soccer academies strive to enhance the physical and technical skill development as well as personality development of talented players because psychological characteristics play a crucial role in players' future success in their transition to professional soccer. The least mature players and relatively young players may have a greater need to possess superior technical/tactical or psycho-behavioral skills than those relatively older counterparts because of the higher selection rates of early maturing players. Due to RAEs, a significant decrease in the overall quality of professional soccer teams might be observed because of the loss of talent of physically smaller, but psychologically stronger and more versatile relatively young players who possess proper technical and tactical attributes at an early age. The first objective of this study was to examine any possible relationship between RAE and personality constructs. A second objective was to identify factors and effects that can help in the further improvement of talent selection and equal opportunities for elite youth soccer players based on their underlying RAE. The third objective was to consider the impact of RAE on long-term career development. Methods In this retrospective observational study, 151 elite youth soccer players between 15 and 18 years of age were first grouped in birth quartiles. Personality constructs were then assessed, using a combination of observations, interviews, and a self-assessment questionnaire. Next competition level after 8 years was evaluated to identify RAEs, differences in personality characteristics and opportunities to reach professional soccer player status between relatively older vs. younger players. Results A clear significant RAE was observed for the whole database (Q1 = 38.4% vs. Q4 = 13.9%) with OR of 2.61 (χ2 = 19.46, p < 0.01, r = -0.85). Relatively young players had higher median scores on personality constructs such as self-confidence (p = 0.04), while relatively old players had higher median scores on personality constructs such as team orientation (p = 0.03). In the long term, more players of the youngest birth quartile were signed as professional players (76.2%), compared with relatively old players (46.6%). 65.0% of the 20 players had the highest total score on personality constructs developed as a professional soccer player, vs. 35.0% of the 20 players with the lowest scores. Discussion In conclusion, this study showed not only further evidence of the RAE but also provided evidence supporting "the underdog hypothesis" in national elite youth teams. Relatively young players were also more likely to get higher value senior professional contracts in the long term. We propose that this may be due to the relatively young players developing superior psychological skills and technical expertise to compensate for their early physical disadvantage. This in turn suggests the need for greater awareness of the importance of personality constructs in the future development of youth elite soccer players. Therefore, the crux of the issue is how youth soccer academies elicit the "best of both worlds" ie. moderating RAE whilst also gaining the benefits of the underdog hypothesis by creating the right environment for every player to develop to their full potential in elite youth soccer academies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Bolckmans
- Institute of Exercise Training and Sport Informatics, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Kris Perquy
- Sport Consultancy MP Mental Coaching in Topsport, Sport and Performance Psychologist RBFA, Tubize, Belgium
| | - Janet L. Starkes
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Daniel Memmert
- Institute of Exercise Training and Sport Informatics, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Werner F. Helsen
- Institute of Exercise Training and Sport Informatics, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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de la Rubia A, Lorenzo-Calvo J, Rojas-Valverde D, Mon-López D, Radnor J, Kelly AL. Bio-Banding in Handball: Academy Players' Perceptions Based on Maturity Status and Gender. Int J Sports Med 2023; 44:871-881. [PMID: 37524114 DOI: 10.1055/a-2145-6454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate young male and female handball players' perceptions of the bio-banding concept. The estimated biological maturity status was assessed in a sample of 46 male and 40 female handball players (aged 14.06±1.40 years), who competed in both an annual age-group and bio-banded tournament. To test the players' perception of bio-banding, a post-competition questionnaire was conducted. A series of ANOVA and one-sample t-tests were used in order to examine the differences in perception between the different maturity groups. An inductive thematic analysis of the qualitative data recorded in the open-ended questions was also carried out. The results showed that early-maturing boys enjoyed the bio-banding tournament more than late-maturing boys (p<0.05). Conversely, no differences were found in girls (p>0.05). Furthermore, discussions were conducted based on the qualitative analysis of the players' written comments regarding their overall experience, finding individual variance in biological maturity may be less relevant in female sports contexts due to gender-related differences. Thus, a greater influence on play and leadership in late maturing boys and early maturing girls, a greater physical challenge in early maturing boys and an opportunity to express themselves technically and tactically in late maturing boys and on-time maturing girls were observed. Therefore, stakeholders must consider the different consequences of bio-banding in order to maximize the athlete's sport development process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfonso de la Rubia
- Deporte y Entrenamiento Research Group, Sports Department, Facultad de Ciencias de la Actividad Física y del Deporte, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid (Spain)
| | - Jorge Lorenzo-Calvo
- Deporte y Entrenamiento Research Group, Sports Department, Facultad de Ciencias de la Actividad Física y del Deporte, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid (Spain)
| | - Daniel Rojas-Valverde
- Escuela de Ciencias del Movimiento Humano y Calidad de Vida, Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica, Heredia, Costa Rica
| | - Daniel Mon-López
- Deporte y Entrenamiento Research Group, Sports Department, Facultad de Ciencias de la Actividad Física y del Deporte, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid (Spain)
| | - John Radnor
- School of Sport and Health Sciences - Youth Physical Development Centre, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Adam L Kelly
- Athlete Development and Youth Sport (ADYS) Lab, Research Centre for Life and Sport Sciences (CLaSS), Birmingham City University, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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Arenas L, Frenger M, Skorski S, Meyer T. Survey of the current practices of German football academies towards biological maturation assessment. SCI MED FOOTBALL 2023:1-14. [PMID: 37840319 DOI: 10.1080/24733938.2023.2270563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aimed to examine the importance assigned to assessing and considering biological maturation in thematic areas of player development and provide an overview of current practices in German football academies regarding its consideration in training and competition. METHODS An online survey was sent to 56 elite German football academies. A total of 46 responded to the questionnaire (82% response rate). Six participants provided incomplete information resulting in a total of 40 completed surveys in the period from March to May 2022. RESULTS Only 20 of participants regularly carried out maturation assessments, despite 95% recognizing its importance for load management, 90% for player development, and 85% for injury prevention. There was no consistent approach to modifying training and competition formats based on maturity status, with a primary focus on gym-based sessions for load management. CONCLUSION The survey results highlight limited implementation of maturation assessment and training modification based on maturity status in German elite youth football academies. Despite recognizing the importance of load monitoring, reporting to parents, and long-term player development in considering biological maturation, practices are not widespread. The predominant use of the maturity offset method suggests an opportunity to improve accuracy by exploring alternative measurement methods and increasing assessment frequency. Moreover, a lack of established procedures for incorporating maturity status into training and competition exists, hindering comprehensive consideration of biological maturation and injury risk prevention. Further research is needed to understand the reasons for inconsistent approaches in maturation assessment and load modification during training and competition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Arenas
- Institute of Sport and Preventive Medicine, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Monika Frenger
- Department Economics and Sociology of Sport, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Sabrina Skorski
- Institute of Sport and Preventive Medicine, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Tim Meyer
- Institute of Sport and Preventive Medicine, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
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Charbonnet B, Sieghartsleitner R, Schmid J, Zuber C, Zibung M, Conzelmann A. Maturity-based correction mechanism for talent identification: When is it needed, does it work, and does it help to better predict who will make it to the pros? J Sports Sci Med 2022. [DOI: 10.52082/jssm.2022.640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
When identifying talent, the confounding influence of maturity status on motor performances is an acknowledged problem. To solve this problem, correction mechanisms have been proposed to transform maturity-biased test scores into maturity-unbiased ones. Whether or not such corrections also improve predictive validity remains unclear. To address this question, we calculated correlations between maturity indicators and motor performance variables among a sample of 121 fifteen-year-old elite youth football players in Switzerland. We corrected motor performance scores identified as maturity-biased, and we assessed correction procedure efficacy. Subsequently, we examined whether corrected scores better predicted levels of performance achievement 6 years after data collection (47 professionals vs. 74 non-professional players) compared with raw scores using point biserial correlations, binary logistic regression models, and DeLong tests. Expectedly, maturity indicators correlated with raw scores (0.16 ≤ | r | ≤ 0.72; ps < 0.05), yet not with corrected scores. Contrary to expectations, corrected scores were not associated with an additional predictive benefit (univariate: no significant r-change; multivariate: 0.02 ≤ ΔAUC ≤ 0.03, ps > 0.05). We do not interpret raw and corrected score equivalent predictions as a sign of correction mechanism futility (more work for the same output); rather we view them as an invitation to take corrected scores seriously into account (same output, one fewer problem) and to revise correction-related expectations according to initial predictive validity of motor variables, validity of maturity indicators, initial maturity-bias, and selection systems. Recommending maturity-based corrections is legitimate, yet currently based on theoretical rather than empirical (predictive) arguments.
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Jung JY. Physical giftedness/talent: A systematic review of the literature on identification and development. Front Psychol 2022; 13:961624. [PMID: 36092065 PMCID: PMC9460770 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.961624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, a systematic review was undertaken of the international scholarly literature on the identification and development of giftedness/talent in the physical domain, to establish the scope of current knowledge in the area. To identify relevant research, a search that involved the creation of a search string and the manual examination of the titles and abstracts of potentially relevant research, was conducted using two databases-Web of Science Core Collection and SportDiscus-and six inclusion/exclusion criteria (i.e., relevance to identification or development of physical giftedness/talent, an empirical study, publication in a reputable academic peer-reviewed journal, publication from 2000 to 2021, an English language publication, and authorship by scholars based in any part of the world). The 101 journal articles that met the inclusion/exclusion criteria were analyzed for key details, including the year of publication, methodological approaches, participants, and major findings. The five broad themes that emerged from the findings of these articles related to conceptions of physical giftedness/talent, identification characteristics/criteria, factors associated with identification, identification methods, and talent development interventions. An outline and discussion of the key issues and trends in the research, along with some recommendations for future research, conclude the systematic review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae Yup Jung
- School of Education, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Lüdin D, Donath L, Cobley S, Mann D, Romann M. Player-labelling as a solution to overcome maturation selection biases in youth football. J Sports Sci 2022; 40:1641-1647. [PMID: 35969578 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2022.2099077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
The fact that potentially skilled, but biologically later-maturing athletes are less likely to be selected into talent development programmes (TDP) can represent a failure of Talent Identification (TID) in sports. To overcome maturation selection biases, maturation independent TID should be established to include less mature, but talented athletes in TDP more frequently. Using a randomised parallel-group design, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of labelling under-11 (U11) Swiss male youth football players (n = 24, age = 11.0 ± 0.3 years) via maturation-ordered shirt numbers during rank assessment by talent scouts (n = 83, scout experience = 4.8 ± 2.4 years). Following observation of video recorded selection tournaments, player-labelling "informed" scouts were significantly more likely to rank less mature players higher on their player potential, t(81) = 2.57, p = .012, d = -0.6, 95% CI [-1.00, -0.13], than "uninformed" scouts. As altered rankings assisted less mature players, player-labelling may offer a practical and feasible strategy to improve TID by removing possible maturation selection biases. To address maturation selection biases and the potential positive impact of player-labelling more broadly, further research on both male and female athletes in various age categories and sports contexts is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Lüdin
- Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Department of Elite Sport, Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Lars Donath
- German Sport University Cologne, Department of Intervention Research in Exercise Training, Cologne, Germany
| | - Stephen Cobley
- University of Sydney, Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Sydney, Australia
| | - David Mann
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Michael Romann
- Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Department of Elite Sport, Magglingen, Switzerland
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Towlson C, MacMaster C, Parr J, Cumming S. One of these things is not like the other: Time to differentiate between relative age and biological maturity selection biases in soccer? SCI MED FOOTBALL 2021; 6:273-276. [DOI: 10.1080/24733938.2021.1946133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chris Towlson
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull, UK
| | - Calum MacMaster
- School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Birmingham, UK
| | - James Parr
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, UK
| | - Sean Cumming
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, UK
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Leyhr D, Bergmann F, Schreiner R, Mann D, Dugandzic D, Höner O. Relative Age-Related Biases in Objective and Subjective Assessments of Performance in Talented Youth Soccer Players. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:664231. [PMID: 34056590 PMCID: PMC8160372 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.664231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Talent research has recommended that multidimensional assessments of performance are needed to improve the identification and development of talented young athletes. However, factors such as the relative age effect may cloud our ability to assess factors related to performance. The aim of this study was to determine the extent of any relationship between soccer players' chronological and relative age, and objective and subjective performance assessments. Data for highly talented male soccer players selected into the German Soccer Associations' talent promotion program (N = 16,138) for U12 to U15 age groups (M age = 12.62 ± 1.04 years) were examined. Besides anthropometric assessments, players completed a battery of five motor tests that objectively assessed speed abilities and technical skills (specifically sprint, agility, dribbling, ball control, and juggling). In addition, coaches subjectively rated players on their kicking, tactical, and psychosocial skills, as well as providing holistic evaluations of each player's current and future performance levels. Correlation analyses were used to investigate the extent of any relationships between the chronological and relative age of players and their results for each of the assessments. A strong linear decrease in the frequency of later-born players confirmed the overrepresentation of early-born players in all age groups (0.92 ≤ |r| ≤ 0.95, each p < 0.001). From U12 to U15, significant (each p < 0.001) correlations were found between the chronological age of players and their height (|r| = 0.70), weight (|r| = 0.69), speed abilities (|r| = 0.38), and technical skills (|r| = 0.43). When evaluating each age group separately, small effects were found when correlating relative age with the anthropometric assessments (0.18 ≤ |r| ≤ 0.26), and only trivial effects with speed abilities and technical skills (0.01 ≤ |r| ≤ 0.06). Similarly, low correlations were found for the subjective evaluations of kicking, tactical, and psychosocial skills with chronological age across age groups (0.03 ≤ |r| ≤ 0.07), and with relative age in each age group (0.01 ≤ |r| ≤ 0.11). The results show a skewed distribution toward early-born players and-in reference to their relative age-advanced performance in late-born athletes. However, trends toward a better holistic rating of early-born players for current and future performance levels were found. Coaches should be aware of these effects during talent selection, but also when interpreting results from subjective and objective assessments of performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Leyhr
- Department of Sport Psychology and Research Methods, Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Methods Center, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Fynn Bergmann
- Department of Sport Psychology and Research Methods, Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Robert Schreiner
- Department of Sport Psychology and Research Methods, Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - David Mann
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | | | - Oliver Höner
- Department of Sport Psychology and Research Methods, Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Helsen WF, Thomis M, Starkes JL, Vrijens S, Ooms G, MacMaster C, Towlson C. Leveling the Playing Field: A New Proposed Method to Address Relative Age- and Maturity-Related Bias in Soccer. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:635379. [PMID: 33748755 PMCID: PMC7969981 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.635379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite various solutions proposed to solve the relative age effect (RAE), it is still a major problem confounding talent identification and selection processes. In the first phase, we sampled 302 under 7-21 academy soccer players from two Belgian professional soccer clubs to explore the potential of a new approach to solve the inequalities resulting from relative age- and maturity-related bias. This approach allocates players into four discrete quartile groups based on the midway point of their chronological and estimated developmental (ED) birth dates (calculated using the growth curves for stature of Belgian youth). With the use of chi square analyses, a RAE was found (p < 0.01) for the overall sample (Q1 = 41.4% vs. Q4 = 14.9%) that completely disappeared after reallocation (Q1 = 26.5%; Q2 = 21.9%; Q3 = 27.5%; Q4 = 24.2%). According to the new allocation method, the stature difference was reduced, on average, by 11.6 cm (from 24.0 ± 9.9 to 12.4 ± 3.4 cm, d = 1.57). Body mass difference between the two methods was 1.9 kg (20.1 ± 11.3-18.2 ± 13.1 kg, respectively, d = 0.15). The new method created a maximum chronological age difference of 1.9 vs. 0.8 years for the current method. With the use of this method, 47% of the players would be reallocated. Twenty-three percent would be moved up one age category, and 21% would be moved down. In the second phase, we also examined 80 UK academy soccer players to explore if reallocating players reduces the within-playing group variation of somatic and physical fitness characteristics. The percentage coefficient of variation (%CV) was reduced (0.2-10.1%) in 15 out of 20 metrics across U11-U16 age categories, with the U13 age category demonstrating the largest reductions (0.9-10.1%) in CV. The U12 and U13 age categories and associated reallocation groupings showed trivial to small (ES = 0.0-0.5) between-method differences and trivial to moderate (ES = 0.0-1.1) differences within the U14-U16 age categories. A reduction in RAE may lead to fewer dropouts and thus a larger player pool, which benefits, in turn, talent identification, selection, and development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Martine Thomis
- KU Leuven, Department of Movement Sciences, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Janet L. Starkes
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Sander Vrijens
- KU Leuven, Department of Movement Sciences, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Gerrit Ooms
- KU Leuven, Department of Movement Sciences, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Calum MacMaster
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom
| | - Chris Towlson
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom
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