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Kim GM, Ko CH, Chung JM, Kwon HC, Rhie YH, Lee SY. Seed Dormancy Class and Germination Characteristics of Prunus spachiana (Lavallée ex Ed.Otto) Kitam. f. ascendens (Makino) Kitam Native to the Korean Peninsula. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 13:502. [PMID: 38498410 PMCID: PMC10891651 DOI: 10.3390/plants13040502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/09/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
Prunus spachiana (Lavallée ex Ed.Otto) Kitam. f. ascendens (Makino) Kitam leaves exert natural anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting nitric oxide formation. P. spachiana flowers bloom earlier than other Prunus spp. and thus could serve as a valuable resource for the horticulture and pharmaceutical industries. However, its seed dormancy class and germination traits remain uncharacterized. Thus, this study aimed to characterize the seed dormancy and germination of P. spachiana. Imbibition, phenological, and move-along experiments were performed, and the effects of H2SO4 treatment, hormone soaking, warm/cold stratification, and endocarp removal on germination were explored. Observation revealed that ripe seeds of P. spachiana contain developed embryos and are water permeable. Radicle and shoot emergence began in March and April, respectively, under natural conditions in the year following production. No seed germination was observed after 30 days of incubation at 4, 15/6, 20/10, or 25/15 °C under light/dark conditions, indicating the physiological dormancy of the seeds. Germination increased with prolonged stratification and was affected by incubation temperature. Seed scarification by H2SO4 and soaking with gibberellic acid (GA3) and fluridone were ineffective in breaking dormancy. However, GA3 soaking of the seeds after endocarp removal effectively induced germination (100%). These results indicate that P. spachiana seeds exhibit intermediate physiological dormancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gun Mo Kim
- Department of Horticulture and Breeding, Graduate of Andong National University, Andong 36792, Republic of Korea;
- Division of Wild Plant Seed Research, Baekdudaegan National Arboretum, Bonghwa 36209, Republic of Korea
| | - Chung Ho Ko
- Garden and Plant Resources Division, Korea National Arboretum, Yangpyeong 12519, Republic of Korea; (C.H.K.); (J.M.C.)
| | - Jae Min Chung
- Garden and Plant Resources Division, Korea National Arboretum, Yangpyeong 12519, Republic of Korea; (C.H.K.); (J.M.C.)
| | - Hak Cheol Kwon
- Natural Product Informatics Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Gangneung 25451, Republic of Korea;
| | - Yong Ha Rhie
- Department of Horticulture and Forestry, Pai Chai University, Daejeon 35345, Republic of Korea;
| | - Seung Youn Lee
- Department of Horticulture and Breeding, Graduate of Andong National University, Andong 36792, Republic of Korea;
- Department of Smart Horticultural Science, Andong National University, Andong 36792, Republic of Korea
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Cuffaro D, Digiacomo M, Macchia M. Dietary Bioactive Compounds: Implications for Oxidative Stress and Inflammation. Nutrients 2023; 15:4966. [PMID: 38068824 PMCID: PMC10707977 DOI: 10.3390/nu15234966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Nowadays, it has been amply demonstrated how an appropriate diet and lifestyle are essential for preserving wellbeing and preventing illnesses [...].
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Affiliation(s)
- Doretta Cuffaro
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy; (D.C.); (M.M.)
- Interdepartmental Research Center “Nutraceuticals and Food for Health”, University of Pisa, 56100 Pisa, Italy
| | - Maria Digiacomo
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy; (D.C.); (M.M.)
- Interdepartmental Research Center “Nutraceuticals and Food for Health”, University of Pisa, 56100 Pisa, Italy
| | - Marco Macchia
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy; (D.C.); (M.M.)
- Interdepartmental Research Center “Nutraceuticals and Food for Health”, University of Pisa, 56100 Pisa, Italy
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Ali NA, Dash KK, Pandey VK, Tripathi A, Mukarram SA, Harsányi E, Kovács B. Extraction and Encapsulation of Phytocompounds of Poniol Fruit via Co-Crystallization: Physicochemical Properties and Characterization. Molecules 2023; 28:4764. [PMID: 37375319 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28124764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Poniol (Flacourtia jangomas) has beneficial health effects due to its high polyphenolic and good antioxidant activity content. This study aimed to encapsulate the Poniol fruit ethanolic extract to the sucrose matrix using the co-crystallization process and analyze the physicochemical properties of the co-crystalized product. The physicochemical property characterization of the sucrose co-crystallized with the Poniol extract (CC-PE) and the recrystallized sucrose (RC) samples was carried out through analyzing the total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant activity, loading capacity, entrapment yield, bulk and traped densities, hygroscopicity, solubilization time, flowability, DSC, XRD, FTIR, and SEM. The result revealed that the CC-PE product had a good entrapment yield (76.38%) and could retain the TPC (29.25 mg GAE/100 g) and antioxidant properties (65.10%) even after the co-crystallization process. Compared to the RC sample, the results also showed that the CC-PE had relatively higher flowability and bulk density, lower hygroscopicity, and solubilization time, which are desirable properties for a powder product. The SEM analysis showed that the CC-PE sample has cavities or pores in the sucrose cubic crystals, which proposed that the entrapment was better. The XRD, DSC, and FTIR analyses also showed no changes in the sucrose crystal structure, thermal properties, and functional group bonding structure, respectively. From the results, we can conclude that co-crystallization increased sucrose's functional properties, and the co-crystallized product can be used as a carrier for phytochemical compounds. The CC-PE product with improved properties can also be utilized to develop nutraceuticals, functional foods, and pharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Afzal Ali
- School of Agro and Rural Technology, IIT Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India
| | - Kshirod Kumar Dash
- Department of Food Processing Technology, Ghani Khan Choudhury Institute of Engineering and Technology (GKCIET), Malda 732141, West Bengal, India
| | - Vinay Kumar Pandey
- Department of Bioengineering, Integral University, Lucknow 226026, Uttar Pradesh, India
- Department of Biotechnology, Axis Institute of Higher Education, Kanpur 208001, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Anjali Tripathi
- Department of Biotechnology, Axis Institute of Higher Education, Kanpur 208001, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Shaikh Ayaz Mukarram
- Faculty of Agriculture, Food Science and Environmental Management, Institute of Food Science, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Endre Harsányi
- Faculty of Agriculture, Food Science and Environmental Management, Institute of Land Utilization, Engineering and Precision Technology, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Béla Kovács
- Faculty of Agriculture, Food Science and Environmental Management, Institute of Food Science, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary
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Raghu SV, Rao S, Kini V, Kudva AK, George T, Baliga MS. Fruits and their phytochemicals in mitigating the ill effects of ionizing radiation: review on the existing scientific evidence and way forward. Food Funct 2023; 14:1290-1319. [PMID: 36688345 DOI: 10.1039/d2fo01911f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Although helpful in treating cancer, exposure to ionizing radiation can sometimes cause severe side effects, negating its benefit. In addition to its use in clinics, a nontoxic radioprotective agent can also be beneficial in occupational settings where humans are occupationally exposed for prolonged periods to low doses of radiation. Scientific studies using laboratory animals have shown that the fruits Aegle marmelos, Capsicum annuum, Citrus aurantium, Citrullus lanatus, Crataegus microphylla, Eugenia jambolana, Emblica officinalis, Garcinia kola, Grewia asiatica, Hippophae rhamnoides, Malus baccata, Malpighia glabra or Malpighia emarginata, Mangifera indica, Prunus domestica, Prunus avium, Prunus armeniaca, Psoralea corylifolia, Punica granatum, Solanum lycopersicum, Terminalia chebula, Vaccinium macrocarpon, Vitis vinifera and Xylopia aethiopica, and the phytochemicals gallic acid, ellagic acid, quercetin, geraniin, corilagin, ascorbic acid, hesperetin, ursolic acid, lycopene, naringin, hesperidin, rutin, resveratrol, β-sitosterol, apigenin, luteolin, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, mangiferin, diosmin, ferulic acid, and kaempferol are effective in preventing radiation-induced ill effects. Clinical studies with Emblica officinalis and Punica granatum have also shown that fruits help mitigate radiation-induced mucositis, dermatitis, and cystitis. For the first time, the current review summarizes the beneficial effects of fruits and phytochemicals in mitigating radiation-induced damage, the underlying mechanisms and the existing lacunae for future studies to be undertaken for the benefit of humans and the nutraceutical and agri-based industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shamprasad Varija Raghu
- Neurogenetics Laboratory, Department of Applied Zoology, Mangalore University, Mangalagangotri, 574199, Karnataka, India
| | - Suresh Rao
- Mangalore Institute of Oncology, Pumpwell, Mangalore-575002, Karnataka, India.
| | - Venkataramana Kini
- Mangalore Institute of Oncology, Pumpwell, Mangalore-575002, Karnataka, India.
| | - Avinash Kundadka Kudva
- Department of Biochemistry, Mangalore University, Mangalagangotri, 574199, Karnataka, India
| | - Thomas George
- Internal Medicine, Coney Island Hospital, 2601 Ocean Pkwy, Brooklyn, New York, 11235, USA
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The Promising Therapeutic and Preventive Properties of Anthocyanidins/Anthocyanins on Prostate Cancer. Cells 2022; 11:cells11071070. [PMID: 35406634 PMCID: PMC8997497 DOI: 10.3390/cells11071070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
As water-soluble flavonoid derivatives, anthocyanidins and anthocyanins are the plants pigments mostly rich in berries, pomegranate, grapes, and dark color fruits. Many bioactivity properties of these advantageous phytochemicals have been reported; among them, their significant abilities in the suppression of tumor cells are of the promising therapeutic features, which have recently attracted great attention. The prostate malignancy, is considered the 2nd fatal and the most distributed cancer type in men worldwide. The present study was designated to gather the preclinical and clinical studies evaluating potencies of anthocyanidins/anthocyanins for the treatment and prevention of this cancer type for the first time. In general, findings confirm that the anthocyanins (especifically cyanidin-3-O-glucoside) indicated higher activity against prostatic neoplasms compared to their correlated anthocyanidins (e.g., delphinidin); in which potent anti-inflammatory, apoptosis, and anti-proliferative activities were analyzed. Complementary anti-prostate cancer assessment of diverse naturally occurred anthocyanidins/anthocyanins and their synthetically optimized derivatives through preclinical experiments and eventually confirmed by clinical trials can promisingly lead to discover natural-based chemotherapeutic drug options.
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Šola I, Poljuha D, Mikulic-Petkovsek M, Davosir D, Pinterić M, Bilić J, Veberic R, Hudina M, Rusak G. Biopotential of Underutilized Rosaceae Inflorescences: LC-DAD-MS Phytochemical Profiles Associated with Antioxidant, Antidiabetic, Anti-Inflammatory and Antiproliferative Activity In Vitro. PLANTS 2022; 11:plants11030271. [PMID: 35161257 PMCID: PMC8838311 DOI: 10.3390/plants11030271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Revised: 01/02/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this work was to assess the biopotential of the young inflorescence tissues of Prunus, Malus and Chaenomeles in order to evaluate the possibility of their application in the food industry, and to provide a polyphenolic fingerprint for their quality control. The contents of different bioactive compounds and their antioxidant capacities were spectrophotometrically measured, the main phenolic compounds were identified and quantified using LC-DAD-MS, the antidiabetic potential was determined using α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition assays, the anti-inflammatory potential was determined using a 5-lipoxygenase inhibition assay, and the cytotoxicity was determined by MTT assay. Using one-way ANOVA, principal component analysis, hierarchical clustering and Pearson’s correlation coefficient, the relations between the samples, and between the samples and the measured parameters, were revealed. In total, 77 compounds were identified. The concentration of sugars was low in M. purpurea, at 1.56 ± 0.08 mg/g DW. The most effective sample in the inhibition of antidiabetic enzymes and anti-inflammatory 5-lipoxygenase was C. japonica. The inhibition of α-glucosidase was strongly positively correlated with the total and condensed tannins, procyanidin dimers and procyanidin tetramer, and was very strongly correlated with chlorogenic acid. In α-amylase inhibition, C. japonica and P. serrulata ‘Kiku Shidare Zakura’ were equally efficient to the standard inhibitor, maltose. The most effective in the growth and proliferation inhibition of HepG2, HCT116 and HaCaT cells was P. avium. The results suggest Prunus, Malus and Chaenomeles inflorescences as functional food ingredients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Šola
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Horvatovac 102a, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (D.D.); (G.R.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +385-1-4898094
| | - Danijela Poljuha
- Department of Agriculture and Nutrition, Institute of Agriculture and Tourism, Karla Huguesa 8, 52440 Poreč, Croatia;
| | - Maja Mikulic-Petkovsek
- Department of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (M.M.-P.); (R.V.); (M.H.)
| | - Dino Davosir
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Horvatovac 102a, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (D.D.); (G.R.)
| | - Marija Pinterić
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Ruđer Bošković Institute, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Josipa Bilić
- METRIS Research Centre, Istrian University of Applied Sciences, Riva 6, 52100 Pula, Croatia;
| | - Robert Veberic
- Department of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (M.M.-P.); (R.V.); (M.H.)
| | - Metka Hudina
- Department of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (M.M.-P.); (R.V.); (M.H.)
| | - Gordana Rusak
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Horvatovac 102a, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (D.D.); (G.R.)
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Gonçalves AC, Costa AR, Flores-Félix JD, Falcão A, Alves G, Silva LR. Anti-Inflammatory and Antiproliferative Properties of Sweet Cherry Phenolic-Rich Extracts. Molecules 2022; 27:268. [PMID: 35011501 PMCID: PMC8747005 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27010268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cherries have largely been investigated due to their high content in phenolics in order to fully explore their health-promoting properties. Therefore, this work aimed to assess, for the first time, the anti-inflammatory potential of phenolic-targeted fractions of the Saco cherry, using RAW 264.7 macrophages stimulated with lipopolysaccharide. Additionally, the cytotoxic effects on gastric adenocarcinoma (AGS), neuroblastoma (SH-SY5Y) and normal human dermal fibroblast (NHDF) cells were evaluated, as well as the ability to protect these cellular models against induced oxidative stress. The obtained data revealed that cherry fractions can interfere with cellular nitric oxide (NO) levels by capturing NO radicals and decreasing inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 expression. Furthermore, it was observed that all cherry fractions exhibited dose-dependent cytotoxicity against AGS cells, presenting cytotoxic selectivity for these cancer cells when compared to SH-SY5Y and NHDF cells. Regarding their capacity to protect cancer cells against oxidative injury, in most assays, the total cherry extract was the most effective. Overall, this study reinforces the idea that sweet cherries can be incorporated into new pharmaceutical products, smart foods and nutraceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana C. Gonçalves
- CICS-UBI—Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal; (A.C.G.); (A.R.C.); (J.D.F.-F.); (G.A.)
- CIBIT—Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research, University of Coimbra, 3004-531 Coimbra, Portugal;
| | - Ana R. Costa
- CICS-UBI—Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal; (A.C.G.); (A.R.C.); (J.D.F.-F.); (G.A.)
| | - José D. Flores-Félix
- CICS-UBI—Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal; (A.C.G.); (A.R.C.); (J.D.F.-F.); (G.A.)
| | - Amílcar Falcão
- CIBIT—Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research, University of Coimbra, 3004-531 Coimbra, Portugal;
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, 3004-531 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Gilberto Alves
- CICS-UBI—Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal; (A.C.G.); (A.R.C.); (J.D.F.-F.); (G.A.)
| | - Luís R. Silva
- CICS-UBI—Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal; (A.C.G.); (A.R.C.); (J.D.F.-F.); (G.A.)
- CPIRN-UDI/IPG, Center of Potential and Innovation of Natural Resources, Research Unit for Inland Development (UDI), Polytechnic Institute of Guarda, 6300-559 Guarda, Portugal
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Phenolic compounds in mango fruit: a review. JOURNAL OF FOOD MEASUREMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11694-021-01192-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Prunus avium L. (Sweet Cherry) By-Products: A Source of Phenolic Compounds with Antioxidant and Anti-Hyperglycemic Properties—A Review. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11188516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Prunus avium L. (sweet cherry) is one of the most appreciated fruit due to its organoleptic and nutritional value. Interestingly, cherry leaves, stems, and flowers are agri-food by-products rich in bioactive compounds that are mostly still unexploited. Stems and leaves have been used in folk medicine since ancient times. Recently, cherry flowers have also proved to be an interesting source of compounds with therapeutic properties. Phenolic compounds, namely hydroxycinnamic acids and flavonoids, are the most present phytochemicals in P. avium fruits and their by-products. These compounds have shown a good antioxidant potential to prevent oxidative stress-related diseases and glycemic control, fundamental in preventing and controlling diabetes mellitus. The present review summarizes the main phenolics found in P. avium stems, leaves, and flowers as compared to their fruits and describes their antioxidant and anti-hyperglycemic properties. Thus, these by-products are an accessible and low-cost source of bioactive constituents with interesting health-promoting properties, making their use promising in diabetes therapy.
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Flores-Félix JD, Gonçalves AC, Alves G, Silva LR. Consumption of Phenolic-Rich Food and Dietary Supplements as a Key Tool in SARS-CoV-19 Infection. Foods 2021; 10:2084. [PMID: 34574194 PMCID: PMC8469666 DOI: 10.3390/foods10092084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 08/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The first cases of COVID-19, which is caused by the SARS-CoV-2, were reported in December 2019. The vertiginous worldwide expansion of SARS-CoV-2 caused the collapse of health systems in several countries due to the high severity of the COVID-19. In addition to the vaccines, the search for active compounds capable of preventing and/or fighting the infection has been the main direction of research. Since the beginning of this pandemic, some evidence has highlighted the importance of a phenolic-rich diet as a strategy to reduce the progression of this disease, including the severity of the symptoms. Some of these compounds (e.g., curcumin, gallic acid or quercetin) already showed capacity to limit the infection of viruses by inhibiting entry into the cell through its binding to protein Spike, regulating the expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, disrupting the replication in cells by inhibition of viral proteases, and/or suppressing and modulating the host's immune response. Therefore, this review intends to discuss the most recent findings on the potential of phenolics to prevent SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- José David Flores-Félix
- CICS-UBI–Health Sciences Research Centre, Faculty of Health Science, University of Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal; (J.D.F.-F.); (A.C.G.); (G.A.)
| | - Ana C. Gonçalves
- CICS-UBI–Health Sciences Research Centre, Faculty of Health Science, University of Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal; (J.D.F.-F.); (A.C.G.); (G.A.)
| | - Gilberto Alves
- CICS-UBI–Health Sciences Research Centre, Faculty of Health Science, University of Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal; (J.D.F.-F.); (A.C.G.); (G.A.)
| | - Luís R. Silva
- CICS-UBI–Health Sciences Research Centre, Faculty of Health Science, University of Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal; (J.D.F.-F.); (A.C.G.); (G.A.)
- Unidade de Investigação para o Desenvolvimento do Interior (UDI/IPG), Instituto Politécnico da Guarda, 6300-559 Guarda, Portugal
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