An observational method of assessing handedness in children and adults

The Handedness Index Practical Task (HI20): An economic behavioural measure for assessing manual preference

ABSTRACTBecause self-report hand preference measures are limited to investigating cognitive aspects of manual laterality, valid, easy-to-administer and economic behavioural methods are needed for capturing the motoric component of handedness. Therefore, this study introduces the Handedness Index Practical Task (HI₂₀) and tests it in a sample of 206 students (M_age = 23.79 years, SD_age = 3.01 years), half of whom were self-specified left-handers. After confirming good reliabilities at the subscale and total scale levels, k-means cluster analysis allowed an empirically based partitioning of test subjects into left- (n = 72), mixed- (n = 23) and right-handers (n = 111). To validate this categorization and the HI₂₀ index, data were compared with the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory (EHI), EHI-short, HI₂₂ and hand grip strength. The congruency between the HI₂₀ clusters and alternative categorizations ranged from 95.6% to 84.0%, while the clusters explained large portions of variance in grip strength differences. The HI₂₀ sub- and total scores showed strong correlations with other measures of lateral preference. Altogether, the freely available HI₂₀ emerges as a reliable and valid alternative for behavioural handedness assessment, whose power lies in explaining differential hand use patterns and enabling fine-grained examinations of handedness.

A Novel Perspective for Examining and Comparing Real and Virtual Test Tasks Performed by the Dominant and Non-Dominant Hand in Healthy Adults

This study presents a novel perspective for the study of functional lateralization in a virtual reality environment. In the model study of handedness, the recognition of the dominant and non-dominant hand in real and virtual conditions was assessed using selected tests, such as a real light exposure test of Piórkowski’s apparatus and classical clinical tests, as well as virtual test tasks, in healthy adults. Statistically significant differences between the dominant and non-dominant hand were observed for tests carried out both in classical conditions and the virtual environment. The results and findings of other studies suggest that the virtual reality approach is a very promising and sensitive tool in the research on functional asymmetries in healthy and disease for motor skills and cognition processes.

Investigating the Efficacy of the Hand Selection Complexity Task Across the Lifespan

There is inconsistent evidence demonstrating a relationship between task complexity and hand preference. However, analyzing the point at which task complexity overrides the decision to demonstrate a biomechanically efficient movement can enable complexity to be quantified. Young children (ages 3–7), adolescents (ages 8–12), young adults (ages 18–25), and older adults (ages 65+) performed a newly developed Hand Selection Complexity Task (HSCT) and completed the Waterloo Handedness Questionnaire (WHQ). The HSCT included a reciprocal Fitts’ tapping task performed in the contralateral space (i.e., same side as preferred hand), followed by ipsilateral space (i.e., opposite side of preferred hand). An alternating contralateral-ipsilateral pattern enabled the participant to progress through six levels of difficulty in three conditions (manipulating target amplitude, width, and combined factors). As participants were free to perform with whichever hand (i.e., preferred, non-preferred) they deemed most appropriate, the level of difficulty where a hand switch occurred was identified. HSCT completion time and error scores were also computed. Findings revealed age to be a significant predictor of dependent measures when considering significant effects and interactions. Combined with the covariate WHQ score as a significant predictor of HSCT time and errors (in some, but not all cases), it can be argued that age-related effects reflect the development of handedness, and changes in strength of handedness across the lifespan. Together, findings suggest that task complexity plays an important role in hand selection when performing a task of increasing difficulty. It appears that task complexity will take precedent over object proximity and biomechanical efficiency, at a certain point, in order to complete the movement with the preferred hand. This point ultimately changes throughout the lifespan.

The home handedness questionnaire: pilot data from preschoolers

While handedness questionnaires are widely used in adults, there is no comparable measure designed specifically for children. The current study developed the Home Handedness Questionnaire (HHQ), a new measure for preschoolers administered by parents using common household items. The HHQ has two scales that distinguish action types typically combined on other measures: actions performed with only the right or left hand (i.e., unimanual, such as holding a toothbrush), and actions performed with one hand holding the object for the other hand's action (i.e., role-differentiated bimanual manipulation or RDBM, such as unscrewing a lid from a jar). The HHQ was able to detect right preference, left preference, and no preference for unimanual and RDBM actions in a proof of concept study in 3-year-olds (N = 64). The HHQ identified a majority of children as right-handed, but was also sensitive to variability in direction across skill types. Approximately one-quarter of children in the sample had mixed preferences for the two types of manual skills, suggesting that for a subgroup of children, hand use patterns may still be undergoing change. Suggestions for refining the HHQ are discussed. Overall, the HHQ is a promising multidimensional parent-led tool for assessing preschool handedness.

Motor Timing and Covariation with Time Perception: Investigating the Role of Handedness

Time is a fundamental dimension of our behavior and enables us to guide our actions and to experience time such as predicting collisions or listening to music. In this study, we investigate the regulation and covariation of motor timing and time perception functions in left- and right-handers who are characterized by distinct brain processing mechanisms for cognitive-motor control. To this purpose, we use a combination of tasks that assess the timed responses during movements and the perception of time intervals. The results showed a positive association across left- and right-handers between movement-driven timing and perceived interval duration when adopting a preferred tempo, suggesting cross-domain coupling between both abilities when an intrinsic timescale is present. Handedness guided motor timing during externally-driven conditions that required cognitive intervention, which specifies the relevance of action expertise for the performance of timed-based motor activities. Overall, our results reveal that individual variation across domain-general and domain-specific levels of organization plays a steering role in how one predicts, perceives and experiences time, which accordingly impacts on cognition and behavior.

Using Bishop's Card Reaching Task to Assess Hand Preference in 8- to 10-Year-Old Czech Children

Hand preference is one of the most apparent functional asymmetry in humans. Under contralateral control, performance is more proficient with the preferred hand; however, the difference between the two hands is greater in right handers, considering left handers generally display less cerebral lateralization. One method of evaluating hand preference is Bishop's card reaching task; however, information regarding validity and sensitivity with children in limited. This study assessed the relationship between Bishop's card reaching task and five hand preference tasks in 8- to 10-year-old typically-developing children from the Czech Republic (N = 376). Structural equation modelling identified a one factor model as the most suitable, including Bishop's card reaching task and three hand preference tasks (ringing, throwing, and rolling with dice). The factor validity (.89) and sensitivity of Bishop's card reaching task (90% to 97%) provided a very good identification of hand preference. These results support the suitability of Bishop's card reaching task as a separate test for determining hand preference in children. Accordingly, we suggest that the assessment of handedness, particularly in neurodevelopmental disorders where the proportion of right-handers and left-handers is disrupted (e.g., children with DCD or ADHD), should make use of Bishop's card reaching task alongside other unimanual tasks.

The influence of M. P. Bryden's work on lateralization of motor skill: Is the preferred hand selected for and better at tasks requiring a high degree of skill?

One question of interest to Dr M. P. Bryden was how skilled motor behaviour, task complexity, and the degree of handedness are linked. His research suggested that there would be dissociation between hand preference and performance for skilled versus unskilled actions. The thought was that "simple" or unskilled tasks such reaching or grasping could be performed equally well by either hand, and thus either could be selected. Skilled tasks such as fine manipulation would be performed best by the preferred hand and thus it would be selected more frequently. Over the past two decades, researchers have attempted to determine whether such a definition of skilled action best encapsulates the specialization of the preferred hand. The current paper will review M. P. Bryden's research on skilled motor behaviour, as well as more recent work, and explore the question of whether the preferred hand is actually superior and preferred for actions requiring manipulation.

Evaluation of Bilateral Asymmetry between Upper Limb Masses in Right-Handed Young Adults of Both Sexes

The study introduced a novel precise method for measurement and calculation of upper arm mass and to assess the difference between masses of upper limbs on the dominant and non-dominant sides of the body of right-handed participants. Forty healthy untrained male ( n = 20; M age = 20.8yr., SD = 1.2) and female ( n = 20; M age = 20.7 yr., SD = 1.3) participants without a history of upper-extremity pathology participated. Kinematic and kinetic data were collected during arm motion. The mass of each arm was calculated. Each participant performed 20 movements with each arm. Most often the dominant arm was more massive than the non-dominant in both sex groups; however, mass was more symmetric for female participants than for male participants. Regression equations related to total body mass were calculated for each arm independently.

Is strength of handedness reliable over repeated testing? An examination of typical development and autism spectrum disorder

Despite a lack of agreement concerning the age at which adult-like patterns of handedness emerge, it is generally understood that hand preference presents early in life and development is variable. Young children (ages 3-5 years) are described as having weak hand preference; however, older children (ages 7-10 years) display stronger patterns. Here, strength of hand preference refers to reliable use of the preferred hand. In comparison to their typically developing (TD) peers, individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are described as having a weak hand preference. This study aimed to extend the literature to assess three measures of handedness (Waterloo Handedness Questionnaire - WHQ, Annett pegboard - AP, and WatHand Cabinet Test - WHCT) in two repeated sessions. The first research question aimed to delineate if the strength of hand use changes across testing sessions as a function of age in typical development. Right-handed children reported a reliable preference for the right hand on the WHQ, similar to adults. A marginally significant difference was revealed between 3- to 4- and 5- to 6-year-olds on the AP. This was attributed to weak lateralization in 3- to 4-year-olds, where the establishment of hand preference by age 6 leads to superior performance with the preferred hand in 5- to 6-year-olds. Finally, for the WHCT, 3- to 4-year-olds had the highest bimanual score, indicating use of the same hand to lift the cabinet door and retrieve an object. It is likely that the task was not motorically complex enough to drive preferred hand selection for older participants. The second research question sought to determine if there is difference between (TD) children and children with ASD. No differences were revealed; however, children with ASD did display variable AP performance, providing partial support for previous literature. Findings will be discussed in light of relevant literature.

Skilled performance tests and their use in diagnosing handedness and footedness at children of lower school age 8-10

Previous research has shown that hand and foot preferences do not develop in parallel in children and it has been discovered that in children foot preference stabilizes later. Therefore, the aim of this study is to verify whether the differences in stabilization will also be manifested through less consistent results of selected skilled foot performance tests in a comparison with selected skilled hand performance tests. A total of 210 8-10 year old children from elementary schools were recruited for this study. Hand and foot preferences were first tested using hand and foot preference observable measure tasks; consequently, all participants performed four skilled hand performance tests and three foot performance tests. Unlike in complex skilled hand performance tests, which showed a significant convergent validity 0.56-0.89 with hand preference tasks, in complex skilled foot performance tests a very low convergent validity 0.25-0.46 with foot preference tasks was detected. The only skilled foot performance indicator which showed an acceptable convergent validity with foot preference tasks was the "foot tapping" test 0.65-0.85, which represents rather a gross motor activity. Moreover, further results of the tests suggest that complex or fine motor performance tests used for diagnosing laterality of the lower limb that have a manipulative character probably do not represent suitable indicators for children in the given age category. The same trend was revealed in both females and males. This indicates that the level of laterality assessed as difference in skilfulness between the preferred and the non-preferred limb in children in the given age group probably develops in the same way in both genders.

Patterns of hand preference in Italian adolescent high-school students

The Annett Hand Preference Questionnaire (AHPQ) is amongst the most widely used self-report measures of handedness. The psychometric properties of the AHPQ have been rarely evaluated outside the Anglo-Saxon culture where the majority of the studies on the AHPQ were done. In this study, 1,023 students (males=49.5%) from four large high schools operating in the district of Cagliari (Italy) were invited to fill in the Italian version of the AHPQ. The AHPQ was proved to measure a unidimensional latent trait, and the questionnaire was good at assessing deviation from right-handedness with high discrimination between subjects. Some items were more informative than others, and in particular the non-equivalence between the primary and the non-primary actions was confirmed by both the confirmatory factor and the item response theory analysis. The use of the rule of thumb that classifies subjects on the basis of the primary actions was supported for the distinction between consistent right- and left-handed. However, the mixed-handed group identified on the basis of the rule of thumb was not entirely consistent with the mixed-handed class predicted by the latent class analysis. Males were about twice as likely as females to be in the mixed-handed class.

Hand preference, performance abilities, and hand selection in children

It is widely know that the pattern of human handedness is such that approximately 90% of the population is right handed with the remainder being left handed, at least in the adult population. What is less well understood is how handedness develops and at what age adult-like handedness patterns emerge. Quantified in terms of both preference and performance, a plethora of different behavioral assessments are currently in use with both children and adults. Handedness questionnaires are commonly used; however, these possess inherent limitations, considering their subjective nature. Hand performance measures have also been implemented; however, such tasks appear to measure different components of handedness. In addition to these traditional measures, handedness has been successfully assessed through observation of hand selection in reaching, which has proven to be a unique and effective manner in understanding the development of handedness in children. Research over the past several decades has demonstrated that young children display weak, inconsistent hand preference tendencies and are slower with both hands. Performance differences between the hands are larger for young children, and consistency improves with age. However, there remains some controversy surrounding the age at which hand preference and hand performance abilities can be considered fully developed. The following paper will provide a review of the literature pertaining to hand preference, performance abilities and hand selection in children in an attempt to ascertain the age at which adult-like patterns of hand preference and performance emerge.

Score reliability and construct validity of the Flinn Performance Screening Tool for adults with symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the psychometric properties of the Flinn Performance Screening Tool (FPST) for people referred with symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS).

METHOD

An occupational therapist collected data from 46 participants who completed the Functional Status Scale (FSS) and FPST after the participants' nerve conduction velocity study to test convergent and contrasted-group validity.

RESULTS

Seventy-four percent of the participants had abnormal nerve conduction studies. Cronbach's α coefficients for subscale and total scores of the FPST ranged from .96 to .98. Intrarater reliability for six shared items of the FSS and the FPST was supported by high agreement (71%) and a fair κ statistic (.36). Strong to moderate positive relationships were found between the FSS and FPST scores. Functional status differed significantly among severe, mild, and negative CTS severity groups.

CONCLUSION

The FPST shows adequate psychometric properties as a client-centered screening tool for occupational performance of people referred for symptoms of CTS.

An examination of handedness and footedness in children with high functioning autism and Asperger syndrome

Motor control deficits have been documented in children with high functioning autism and Asperger syndrome (HFA/AS), but the extent to which these disorders affect the children's footedness must be delineated. Twelve typically developing (TD) children and 12 children with HFA/AS, ages 6-9 years, were recruited. Motor control skills were assessed through a variety of footedness tasks to determine location and nature of impairment, regarding motor dominance. Overall, greater inconsistencies in dominance arose in children with HFA/AS, through disparities in measures of preference. Results will have broader implications for understanding motor impairments in children with HFA/AS as determined by comparing performance on footedness tasks, as well as for the design of interventions to account for these deficits.

Influences of task complexity, object location, and object type on hand selection in reaching in left and right-handed children and adults

The effects of task complexity, object location, and object type on reaching behavior were examined. Two hundred ninety-two right-handed and 38 left-handed participants (grouped into five age groups) were asked to pick up or pick up and use objects in different regions of peripersonal space. It was found that individuals used their nonpreferred-hand more often in contralateral space than at the midline position. Using an object resulted in significantly more preferred-hand reaches than picking up an object. Furthermore, task complexity, object location, and object type interacted with each other depending upon age group and hand preference.

Manual asymmetry in a complex coincidence-anticipation task: handedness and gender effects

This study investigated the effects of handedness and gender on manual asymmetry in the performance of a complex coincidence-anticipation task. Left-handed (N=63) and right-handed (N=93) undergraduate students (78 males, 78 females) were required to press six buttons sequentially in conjunction with visual stimulation provided by a coincidence-anticipation apparatus. Participants were further separated into subgroups based on the degree of hand preference. Timing accuracy (AE, CE, VE) and timing response (IT, MT, AT) were analysed. Results showed that, concerning accuracy, (i) strong left-handers were more accurate than the other groups; (ii) performance with the preferred hand was superior to that of the non-preferred hand; and (iii) males outperformed females. Concerning timing response, (i) the preferred hand was faster than the non-preferred hand for movement time and (ii) males were faster in initiating the movement than females. These findings indicate that coincidence-anticipation competence appears to be influenced by hand preference, performing hand, and gender. In addition, findings are discussed in the framework of the hemispheric functional lateralisation for the planning and organisation of movement execution.