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van Tartwijk FW, Wunderlich LCS, Mela I, Makarchuk S, Jakobs MAH, Qamar S, Franze K, Kaminski Schierle GS, St George-Hyslop PH, Lin JQ, Holt CE, Kaminski CF. Mutation of the ALS-/FTD-Associated RNA-Binding Protein FUS Affects Axonal Development. J Neurosci 2024; 44:e2148232024. [PMID: 38692734 PMCID: PMC7616130 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2148-23.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2024] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Aberrant condensation and localization of the RNA-binding protein (RBP) fused in sarcoma (FUS) occur in variants of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Changes in RBP function are commonly associated with changes in axonal cytoskeletal organization and branching in neurodevelopmental disorders. Here, we asked whether branching defects also occur in vivo in a model of FUS-associated disease. We use two reported Xenopus models of ALS/FTD (of either sex), the ALS-associated mutant FUS(P525L) and a mimic of hypomethylated FUS, FUS(16R). Both mutants strongly reduced axonal complexity in vivo. We also observed an axon looping defect for FUS(P525L) in the target area, which presumably arises due to errors in stop cue signaling. To assess whether the loss of axon complexity also had a cue-independent component, we assessed axonal cytoskeletal integrity in vitro. Using a novel combination of fluorescence and atomic force microscopy, we found that mutant FUS reduced actin density in the growth cone, altering its mechanical properties. Therefore, FUS mutants may induce defects during early axonal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca W van Tartwijk
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0AS, United Kingdom
| | - Lucia C S Wunderlich
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0AS, United Kingdom
| | - Ioanna Mela
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0AS, United Kingdom
| | - Stanislaw Makarchuk
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, UK Dementia Research Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 OAH, United Kingdom
| | - Maximilian A H Jakobs
- Department of Physiology, Development, and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3DY, United Kingdom
| | - Seema Qamar
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, United Kingdom
| | - Kristian Franze
- Department of Physiology, Development, and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3DY, United Kingdom
| | - Gabriele S Kaminski Schierle
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0AS, United Kingdom
| | - Peter H St George-Hyslop
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, United Kingdom
- Department of Medicine, University of Toronto and University Health Network and Tanz Centre for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5T 0S8, Canada
- Department of Neurology, Taub Institute For Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Irvine Medical Center, New York, New York 10032
| | - Julie Qiaojin Lin
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, UK Dementia Research Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 OAH, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute Centre and Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, Maurice Wohl Clinical Neuroscience Institute, London SE5 9NU, United Kingdom
| | - Christine E Holt
- Department of Physiology, Development, and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3DY, United Kingdom
| | - Clemens F Kaminski
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0AS, United Kingdom
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2
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Chen S, Puri A, Bell B, Fritsche J, Palacios HH, Balch M, Sprunger ML, Howard MK, Ryan JJ, Haines JN, Patti GJ, Davis AA, Jackrel ME. HTRA1 disaggregates α-synuclein amyloid fibrils and converts them into non-toxic and seeding incompetent species. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2436. [PMID: 38499535 PMCID: PMC10948756 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46538-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is closely linked to α-synuclein (α-syn) misfolding and accumulation in Lewy bodies. The PDZ serine protease HTRA1 degrades fibrillar tau, which is associated with Alzheimer's disease, and inactivating mutations to mitochondrial HTRA2 are implicated in PD. Here, we report that HTRA1 inhibits aggregation of α-syn as well as FUS and TDP-43, which are implicated in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia. The protease domain of HTRA1 is necessary and sufficient for inhibiting aggregation, yet this activity is proteolytically-independent. Further, HTRA1 disaggregates preformed α-syn fibrils, rendering them incapable of seeding aggregation of endogenous α-syn, while reducing HTRA1 expression promotes α-syn seeding. HTRA1 remodels α-syn fibrils by targeting the NAC domain, the key domain catalyzing α-syn amyloidogenesis. Finally, HTRA1 detoxifies α-syn fibrils and prevents formation of hyperphosphorylated α-syn accumulations in primary neurons. Our findings suggest that HTRA1 may be a therapeutic target for a range of neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Chen
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Anuradhika Puri
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Braxton Bell
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Joseph Fritsche
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Hector H Palacios
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Maurie Balch
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Macy L Sprunger
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Matthew K Howard
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Jeremy J Ryan
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Jessica N Haines
- Department of Neurology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Gary J Patti
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
- Department of Medicine, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Albert A Davis
- Department of Neurology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Meredith E Jackrel
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA.
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3
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Tsui A, Kouznetsova VL, Kesari S, Fiala M, Tsigelny IF. Role of Senataxin in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. J Mol Neurosci 2023; 73:996-1009. [PMID: 37982993 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-023-02169-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/21/2023]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive, uncurable neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the degradation of motor neurons leading to muscle impairment, failure, and death. Senataxin, encoded by the SETX gene, is a human helicase protein whose mutations have been linked with ALS onset, particularly in its juvenile ALS4 form. Using senataxin's yeast homolog Sen1 as a model for study, it is suggested that senataxin's N-terminus interacts with RNA polymerase II, whilst its C-terminus engages in helicase activity. Senataxin is heavily involved in transcription regulation, termination, and R-loop resolution, enabled by recruitment and interactions with enzymes such as ubiquitin protein ligase SAN1 and ribonuclease H (RNase H). Senataxin also engages in DNA damage response (DDR), primarily interacting with the exosome subunit Rrp45. The Sen1 mutation E1597K, alongside the L389S and R2136H gain-of-function mutations to senataxin, is shown to cause negative structural and thus functional effects to the protein, thus contributing to a disruption in WT functions, motor neuron (MN) degeneration, and the manifestation of ALS clinical symptoms. This review corroborates and summarizes published papers concerning the structure and function of senataxin as well as the effects of their mutations in ALS pathology in order to compile current knowledge and provide a reference for future research. The findings compiled in this review are indicative of the experimental and therapeutic potential of senataxin and its mutations as a target in future ALS treatment/cure discovery, with some potential therapeutic routes also being discussed in the review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Tsui
- REHS Program, San Diego Supercomputer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Valentina L Kouznetsova
- San Diego Supercomputer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
- CureScience Institute, San Diego, CA, USA
- BiAna, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | | | - Milan Fiala
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Igor F Tsigelny
- San Diego Supercomputer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
- CureScience Institute, San Diego, CA, USA.
- BiAna, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
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4
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Provasek VE, Kodavati M, Guo W, Wang H, Boldogh I, Van Den Bosch L, Britz G, Hegde ML. lncRNA Sequencing Reveals Neurodegeneration-Associated FUS Mutations Alter Transcriptional Landscape of iPS Cells That Persists in Motor Neurons. Cells 2023; 12:2461. [PMID: 37887305 PMCID: PMC10604943 DOI: 10.3390/cells12202461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Fused-in sarcoma (FUS) gene mutations have been implicated in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). This study aimed to investigate the impact of FUS mutations (R521H and P525L) on the transcriptome of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and iPSC-derived motor neurons (iMNs). Using RNA sequencing (RNA Seq), we characterized differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and differentially expressed lncRNAs (DELs) and subsequently predicted lncRNA-mRNA target pairs (TAR pairs). Our results show that FUS mutations significantly altered the expression profiles of mRNAs and lncRNAs in iPSCs. Using this large dataset, we identified and verified six key differentially regulated TAR pairs in iPSCs that were also altered in iMNs. These target transcripts included: GPR149, NR4A, LMO3, SLC15A4, ZNF404, and CRACD. These findings indicated that selected mutant FUS-induced transcriptional alterations persist from iPSCs into differentiated iMNs. Functional enrichment analyses of DEGs indicated pathways associated with neuronal development and carcinogenesis as likely altered by these FUS mutations. Furthermore, ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) and GO network analysis of lncRNA-targeted mRNAs indicated associations between RNA metabolism, lncRNA regulation, and DNA damage repair. Our findings provide insights into potential molecular mechanisms underlying the pathophysiology of ALS-associated FUS mutations and suggest potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent E. Provasek
- Division of DNA Repair Research within the Center for Neuroregeneration, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (V.E.P.); (M.K.); (H.W.)
- School of Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Manohar Kodavati
- Division of DNA Repair Research within the Center for Neuroregeneration, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (V.E.P.); (M.K.); (H.W.)
| | - Wenting Guo
- INSERM, UMR-S1118, Mécanismes Centraux et Périphériques de la Neurodégénérescence, Université de Strasbourg, CRBS, 67000 Strasbourg, France;
- VIB, Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Stem Cell Institute, Department of Development and Regeneration, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium;
| | - Haibo Wang
- Division of DNA Repair Research within the Center for Neuroregeneration, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (V.E.P.); (M.K.); (H.W.)
| | - Istvan Boldogh
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA;
| | - Ludo Van Den Bosch
- Stem Cell Institute, Department of Development and Regeneration, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium;
| | - Gavin Britz
- Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA;
| | - Muralidhar L. Hegde
- Division of DNA Repair Research within the Center for Neuroregeneration, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (V.E.P.); (M.K.); (H.W.)
- School of Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA
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5
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Ferreira PA. Nucleocytoplasmic transport at the crossroads of proteostasis, neurodegeneration and neuroprotection. FEBS Lett 2023; 597:2567-2589. [PMID: 37597509 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 08/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/21/2023]
Abstract
Nucleocytoplasmic transport comprises the multistep assembly, transport, and disassembly of protein and RNA cargoes entering and exiting nuclear pores. Accruing evidence supports that impairments to nucleocytoplasmic transport are a hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases. These impairments cause dysregulations in nucleocytoplasmic partitioning and proteostasis of nuclear transport receptors and client substrates that promote intracellular deposits - another hallmark of neurodegeneration. Disturbances in liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) between dense and dilute phases of biomolecules implicated in nucleocytoplasmic transport promote micrometer-scale coacervates, leading to proteinaceous aggregates. This Review provides historical and emerging principles of LLPS at the interface of nucleocytoplasmic transport, proteostasis, aging and noxious insults, whose dysregulations promote intracellular aggregates. E3 SUMO-protein ligase Ranbp2 constitutes the cytoplasmic filaments of nuclear pores, where it acts as a molecular hub for rate-limiting steps of nucleocytoplasmic transport. A vignette is provided on the roles of Ranbp2 in nucleocytoplasmic transport and at the intersection of proteostasis in the survival of photoreceptor and motor neurons under homeostatic and pathophysiological environments. Current unmet clinical needs are highlighted, including therapeutics aiming to manipulate aggregation-dissolution models of purported neurotoxicity in neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo A Ferreira
- Department of Ophthalmology, Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, NC, Durham, USA
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6
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Mack KL, Kim H, Barbieri EM, Lin J, Braganza S, Jackrel ME, DeNizio JE, Yan X, Chuang E, Tariq A, Cupo RR, Castellano LM, Caldwell KA, Caldwell GA, Shorter J. Tuning Hsp104 specificity to selectively detoxify α-synuclein. Mol Cell 2023; 83:3314-3332.e9. [PMID: 37625404 PMCID: PMC10530207 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2023.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
Hsp104 is an AAA+ protein disaggregase that solubilizes and reactivates proteins trapped in aggregated states. We have engineered potentiated Hsp104 variants to mitigate toxic misfolding of α-synuclein, TDP-43, and FUS implicated in fatal neurodegenerative disorders. Though potent disaggregases, these enhanced Hsp104 variants lack substrate specificity and can have unfavorable off-target effects. Here, to lessen off-target effects, we engineer substrate-specific Hsp104 variants. By altering Hsp104 pore loops that engage substrate, we disambiguate Hsp104 variants that selectively suppress α-synuclein toxicity but not TDP-43 or FUS toxicity. Remarkably, α-synuclein-specific Hsp104 variants emerge that mitigate α-synuclein toxicity via distinct ATPase-dependent mechanisms involving α-synuclein disaggregation or detoxification of soluble α-synuclein conformers. Importantly, both types of α-synuclein-specific Hsp104 variant reduce dopaminergic neurodegeneration in a C. elegans model of Parkinson's disease more effectively than non-specific variants. We suggest that increasing the substrate specificity of enhanced disaggregases could be applied broadly to tailor therapeutics for neurodegenerative disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Korrie L Mack
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Hanna Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA
| | - Edward M Barbieri
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - JiaBei Lin
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Sylvanne Braganza
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Meredith E Jackrel
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Jamie E DeNizio
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Xiaohui Yan
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA
| | - Edward Chuang
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Pharmacology Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Amber Tariq
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Ryan R Cupo
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Pharmacology Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Laura M Castellano
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Kim A Caldwell
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA
| | - Guy A Caldwell
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA.
| | - James Shorter
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Pharmacology Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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7
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Naskar A, Nayak A, Salaikumaran MR, Vishal SS, Gopal PP. Phase separation and pathologic transitions of RNP condensates in neurons: implications for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, frontotemporal dementia and other neurodegenerative disorders. Front Mol Neurosci 2023; 16:1242925. [PMID: 37720552 PMCID: PMC10502346 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2023.1242925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Liquid-liquid phase separation results in the formation of dynamic biomolecular condensates, also known as membrane-less organelles, that allow for the assembly of functional compartments and higher order structures within cells. Multivalent, reversible interactions between RNA-binding proteins (RBPs), including FUS, TDP-43, and hnRNPA1, and/or RNA (e.g., RBP-RBP, RBP-RNA, RNA-RNA), result in the formation of ribonucleoprotein (RNP) condensates, which are critical for RNA processing, mRNA transport, stability, stress granule assembly, and translation. Stress granules, neuronal transport granules, and processing bodies are examples of cytoplasmic RNP condensates, while the nucleolus and Cajal bodies are representative nuclear RNP condensates. In neurons, RNP condensates promote long-range mRNA transport and local translation in the dendrites and axon, and are essential for spatiotemporal regulation of gene expression, axonal integrity and synaptic function. Mutations of RBPs and/or pathologic mislocalization and aggregation of RBPs are hallmarks of several neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), frontotemporal dementia (FTD), and Alzheimer's disease. ALS/FTD-linked mutations of RBPs alter the strength and reversibility of multivalent interactions with other RBPs and RNAs, resulting in aberrant phase transitions. These aberrant RNP condensates have detrimental functional consequences on mRNA stability, localization, and translation, and ultimately lead to compromised axonal integrity and synaptic function in disease. Pathogenic protein aggregation is dependent on various factors, and aberrant dynamically arrested RNP condensates may serve as an initial nucleation step for pathologic aggregate formation. Recent studies have focused on identifying mechanisms by which neurons resolve phase transitioned condensates to prevent the formation of pathogenic inclusions/aggregates. The present review focuses on the phase separation of neurodegenerative disease-linked RBPs, physiological functions of RNP condensates, and the pathologic role of aberrant phase transitions in neurodegenerative disease, particularly ALS/FTD. We also examine cellular mechanisms that contribute to the resolution of aberrant condensates in neurons, and potential therapeutic approaches to resolve aberrantly phase transitioned condensates at a molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aditi Naskar
- Department of Pathology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Asima Nayak
- Department of Pathology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | | | - Sonali S. Vishal
- Department of Pathology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Pallavi P. Gopal
- Department of Pathology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
- Program in Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, and Repair, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
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8
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Howard MK, Miller KR, Sohn BS, Ryan JJ, Xu A, Jackrel ME. Probing the drivers of Staphylococcus aureus biofilm protein amyloidogenesis and disrupting biofilms with engineered protein disaggregases. mBio 2023; 14:e0058723. [PMID: 37195208 PMCID: PMC10470818 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00587-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs) are the primary proteinaceous component of Staphylococcus aureus biofilms. Residence in the protective environment of biofilms allows bacteria to rapidly evolve and acquire antimicrobial resistance, which can lead to persistent infections such as those caused by methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). In their soluble form, PSMs hinder the immune response of the host and can increase the virulence potential of MRSA. PSMs also self-assemble into insoluble functional amyloids that contribute to the structural scaffold of biofilms. The specific roles of PSM peptides in biofilms remain poorly understood. Here, we report the development of a genetically tractable yeast model system for studying the properties of PSMα peptides. Expression of PSMα peptides in yeast drives the formation of toxic insoluble aggregates that adopt vesicle-like structures. Using this system, we probed the molecular drivers of PSMα aggregation to delineate key similarities and differences among the PSMs and identified a crucial residue that drives PSM features. Biofilms are a major public health threat; thus, biofilm disruption is a key goal. To solubilize aggregates comprised of a diverse range of amyloid and amyloid-like species, we have developed engineered variants of Hsp104, a hexameric AAA+ protein disaggregase from yeast. Here, we demonstrate that potentiated Hsp104 variants counter the toxicity and aggregation of PSMα peptides. Further, we demonstrate that a potentiated Hsp104 variant can drive the disassembly of preformed S. aureus biofilms. We suggest that this new yeast model can be a powerful platform for screening for agents that disrupt PSM aggregation and that Hsp104 disaggregases could be a promising tool for the safe enzymatic disruption of biofilms. IMPORTANCE Biofilms are complex mixtures secreted by bacteria that form a material in which the bacteria can become embedded. This process transforms the properties of the bacteria, and they become more resistant to removal, which can give rise to multidrug-resistant strains, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Here, we study phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs), which are amyloidogenic proteins secreted by S. aureus, that become incorporated into biofilms. Biofilms are challenging to study, so we have developed a new genetically tractable yeast model to study the PSMs. We used our system to learn about several key features of the PSMs. We also demonstrate that variants of an amyloid disaggregase, Hsp104, can disrupt the PSMs and, more importantly, dissolve preformed S. aureus biofilms. We propose that our system can be a powerful screening tool and that Hsp104 disaggregases may be a new avenue to explore for biofilm disruption agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew K. Howard
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Karlie R. Miller
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Brian S. Sohn
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Jeremy J. Ryan
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Andy Xu
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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9
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Wang S, Sun S. Translation dysregulation in neurodegenerative diseases: a focus on ALS. Mol Neurodegener 2023; 18:58. [PMID: 37626421 PMCID: PMC10464328 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-023-00642-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
RNA translation is tightly controlled in eukaryotic cells to regulate gene expression and maintain proteome homeostasis. RNA binding proteins, translation factors, and cell signaling pathways all modulate the translation process. Defective translation is involved in multiple neurological diseases including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). ALS is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder and poses a major public health challenge worldwide. Over the past few years, tremendous advances have been made in the understanding of the genetics and pathogenesis of ALS. Dysfunction of RNA metabolisms, including RNA translation, has been closely associated with ALS. Here, we first introduce the general mechanisms of translational regulation under physiological and stress conditions and review well-known examples of translation defects in neurodegenerative diseases. We then focus on ALS-linked genes and discuss the recent progress on how translation is affected by various mutant genes and the repeat expansion-mediated non-canonical translation in ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaopeng Wang
- Department of Physiology and Brain Science Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Shuying Sun
- Department of Physiology and Brain Science Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA.
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA.
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA.
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10
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Chen S, Puri A, Bell B, Fritsche J, Palacios H, Balch M, Sprunger M, Howard M, Patterson J, Patti G, Davis A, Jackrel M. HtrA1 prevents and reverses α-synuclein aggregation, rendering it non-toxic and seeding incompetent. RESEARCH SQUARE 2023:rs.3.rs-2570571. [PMID: 37674720 PMCID: PMC10479434 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-2570571/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson disease (PD) is closely linked to the misfolding and accumulation of α-synuclein (α-syn) into Lewy bodies. HtrA1 is a PDZ serine protease that degrades fibrillar tau, which is associated with Alzheimer disease (AD). Further, inactivating mutations to mitochondrial HtrA2 have been implicated in PD. Here, we establish that HtrA1 inhibits the aggregation of α-syn as well as FUS and TDP-43, which are implicated in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). We demonstrate that the protease domain of HtrA1 is necessary and sufficient for inhibition of aggregation, yet this activity is independent of HtrA1 proteolytic activity. Further, we find that HtrA1 also disaggregates preformed α-syn fibrils, which may promote their clearance. Treatment of α-syn fibrils with HtrA1 renders α-syn incapable of seeding the aggregation of endogenous α-syn in mammalian biosensor cells. We find that HtrA1 remodels α-syn by specifically targeting the NAC domain, which is the key domain that catalyzes α-syn oligomerization and fibrillization. Finally, in a primary neuron model of α-syn aggregation, we show that HtrA1 and its proteolytically inactive form both detoxify α-syn and prevent the formation of hyperphosphorylated α-syn accumulations. Our findings suggest that HtrA1 prevents aggregation and promotes disaggregation of multiple disease-associated proteins, and may be a therapeutic target for treating a range of neurodegenerative disorders.
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11
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Zhou W, Xu R. Current insights in the molecular genetic pathogenesis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1189470. [PMID: 37638324 PMCID: PMC10448825 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1189470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive and fatal neurodegenerative disease that leads to the massive loss of motor neurons in cerebrum, brain stem and spinal cord. It affects not only motor neurons but also other neurons and glial cells, resulting in the progressive muscle atrophy, the severe disability and the eventual death due to the respiratory failure. The pathogenesis of ALS is not fully understood. Currently, several factors are considered to be involved in the pathogenesis of ALS, such as genetic factors, imbalances in protein homeostasis, RNA metabolism disorders, mitochondrial dysfunctions, glutamate-mediated excitatory toxicities and intra-neuronal material transport disorders in neurons. The study of genetic mutations related to ALS pathogenesis will link the molecular and cellular mechanisms of the disease, thus enhancing the understanding of its occurrence and progression, thereby providing new insights for the pathogenesis of ALS. This review summarizes the current insights in the molecular genetic pathogenesis of ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan Zhou
- Medical College of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
- Department of Neurology, Jiangxi Provincial People’s Hospital, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang Medical College, The Clinical College of Nanchang Medical College, Nanchang, China
| | - Renshi Xu
- Medical College of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
- Department of Neurology, Jiangxi Provincial People’s Hospital, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang Medical College, The Clinical College of Nanchang Medical College, Nanchang, China
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12
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Afonso GJM, Cavaleiro C, Valero J, Mota SI, Ferreiro E. Recent Advances in Extracellular Vesicles in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Emergent Perspectives. Cells 2023; 12:1763. [PMID: 37443797 PMCID: PMC10340215 DOI: 10.3390/cells12131763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a severe and incurable neurodegenerative disease characterized by the progressive death of motor neurons, leading to paralysis and death. It is a rare disease characterized by high patient-to-patient heterogeneity, which makes its study arduous and complex. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as important players in the development of ALS. Thus, ALS phenotype-expressing cells can spread their abnormal bioactive cargo through the secretion of EVs, even in distant tissues. Importantly, owing to their nature and composition, EVs' formation and cargo can be exploited for better comprehension of this elusive disease and identification of novel biomarkers, as well as for potential therapeutic applications, such as those based on stem cell-derived exosomes. This review highlights recent advances in the identification of the role of EVs in ALS etiopathology and how EVs can be promising new therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonçalo J. M. Afonso
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (G.J.M.A.); (C.C.)
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- III-Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Carla Cavaleiro
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (G.J.M.A.); (C.C.)
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- III-Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Jorge Valero
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Castilla y León, University of Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain;
- Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), 37007 Salamanca, Spain
- Department of Cell Biology and Pathology, University of Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Sandra I. Mota
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (G.J.M.A.); (C.C.)
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- III-Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Elisabete Ferreiro
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (G.J.M.A.); (C.C.)
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- III-Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal
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13
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Szebényi K, Barrio-Hernandez I, Gibbons GM, Biasetti L, Troakes C, Beltrao P, Lakatos A. A human proteogenomic-cellular framework identifies KIF5A as a modulator of astrocyte process integrity with relevance to ALS. Commun Biol 2023; 6:678. [PMID: 37386082 PMCID: PMC10310856 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-05041-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Genome-wide association studies identified several disease-causing mutations in neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). However, the contribution of genetic variants to pathway disturbances and their cell type-specific variations, especially in glia, is poorly understood. We integrated ALS GWAS-linked gene networks with human astrocyte-specific multi-omics datasets to elucidate pathognomonic signatures. It predicts that KIF5A, a motor protein kinesin-1 heavy-chain isoform, previously detected only in neurons, can also potentiate disease pathways in astrocytes. Using postmortem tissue and super-resolution structured illumination microscopy in cell-based perturbation platforms, we provide evidence that KIF5A is present in astrocyte processes and its deficiency disrupts structural integrity and mitochondrial transport. We show that this may underly cytoskeletal and trafficking changes in SOD1 ALS astrocytes characterised by low KIF5A levels, which can be rescued by c-Jun N-terminal Kinase-1 (JNK1), a kinesin transport regulator. Altogether, our pipeline reveals a mechanism controlling astrocyte process integrity, a pre-requisite for synapse maintenance and suggests a targetable loss-of-function in ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kornélia Szebényi
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, CB2 0PY, UK
- Institute of Enzymology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Budapest, 1117, Hungary
| | | | - George M Gibbons
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, CB2 0PY, UK
| | - Luca Biasetti
- Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, SE5 8AF, UK
| | - Claire Troakes
- Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, SE5 8AF, UK
| | - Pedro Beltrao
- European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, CB10 1SD, UK.
- Institute of Molecular Systems Biology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, 8093, Switzerland.
| | - András Lakatos
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, CB2 0PY, UK.
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, CB2 0AW, UK.
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14
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Provasek VE, Kodavati M, Guo W, Wang H, Boldogh I, Van Den Bosch L, Britz G, Hegde M. lncRNA Sequencing Reveals Neurodegeneration-associated FUS Mutations Alter Transcriptional Landscape of iPS Cells That Persists In Motor Neurons. RESEARCH SQUARE 2023:rs.3.rs-3112246. [PMID: 37461717 PMCID: PMC10350127 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3112246/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
Fused-in Sarcoma (FUS) gene mutations have been implicated in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). This study aimed to investigate the impact of FUS mutations (R521H and P525L) on the transcriptome of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and iPSC-derived motor neurons (iMNs). Using RNA sequencing (RNA Seq), we characterized differentially expressed genes (DEGs), differentially expressed lncRNAs (DELs), and subsequently predicted lncRNA-mRNA target pairs (TAR pairs). Our results show that FUS mutations significantly altered expression profiles of mRNAs and lncRNAs in iPSCs. We identified key differentially regulated TAR pairs, including LMO3, TMEM132D, ERMN, GPR149, CRACD, and ZNF404 in mutant FUS iPSCs. We performed reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) validation in iPSCs and iMNs. Validation confirmed RNA-Seq findings and suggested that mutant FUS-induced transcriptional alterations persisted from iPSCs into differentiated iMNs. Functional enrichment analyses of DEGs indicated pathways associated with neuronal development and carcinogenesis that were likely altered by FUS mutations. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) and GO network analysis of lncRNA-targeted mRNAs indicated associations related to RNA metabolism, lncRNA regulation, and DNA damage repair. Our findings provide insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the pathophysiology of ALS-associated FUS mutations and suggest potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent E. Provasek
- Division of DNA Repair Research within the Center for Neuroregeneration, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- School of Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Manohar Kodavati
- Division of DNA Repair Research within the Center for Neuroregeneration, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Wenting Guo
- KU Leuven-Department of Neurosciences, Experimental Neurology and Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), Leuven, 3000, Belgium
- Stem Cell Institute, Department of Development and Regeneration, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Haibo Wang
- Division of DNA Repair Research within the Center for Neuroregeneration, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Istvan Boldogh
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Ludo Van Den Bosch
- KU Leuven-Department of Neurosciences, Experimental Neurology and Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), Leuven, 3000, Belgium
| | - Gavin Britz
- Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Muralidhar Hegde
- Division of DNA Repair Research within the Center for Neuroregeneration, Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- School of Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA
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15
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Piol D, Robberechts T, Da Cruz S. Lost in local translation: TDP-43 and FUS in axonal/neuromuscular junction maintenance and dysregulation in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neuron 2023; 111:1355-1380. [PMID: 36963381 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2023.02.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/26/2023]
Abstract
Key early features of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) are denervation of neuromuscular junctions and axonal degeneration. Motor neuron homeostasis relies on local translation through controlled regulation of axonal mRNA localization, transport, and stability. Yet the composition of the local transcriptome, translatome (mRNAs locally translated), and proteome during health and disease remains largely unexplored. This review covers recent discoveries on axonal translation as a critical mechanism for neuronal maintenance/survival. We focus on two RNA binding proteins, transactive response DNA binding protein-43 (TDP-43) and fused in sarcoma (FUS), whose mutations cause ALS and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Emerging evidence points to their essential role in the maintenance of axons and synapses, including mRNA localization, transport, and local translation, and whose dysfunction may contribute to ALS. Finally, we describe recent advances in omics-based approaches mapping compartment-specific local RNA and protein compositions, which will be invaluable to elucidate fundamental local processes and identify key targets for therapy development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Piol
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain and Disease Research, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Tessa Robberechts
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain and Disease Research, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sandrine Da Cruz
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain and Disease Research, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium.
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16
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Sun L, Zhang Y, Cai J, Rimal B, Rocha ER, Coleman JP, Zhang C, Nichols RG, Luo Y, Kim B, Chen Y, Krausz KW, Harris CC, Patterson AD, Zhang Z, Takahashi S, Gonzalez FJ. Bile salt hydrolase in non-enterotoxigenic Bacteroides potentiates colorectal cancer. Nat Commun 2023; 14:755. [PMID: 36765047 PMCID: PMC9918522 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-36089-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Bile salt hydrolase (BSH) in Bacteroides is considered a potential drug target for obesity-related metabolic diseases, but its involvement in colon tumorigenesis has not been explored. BSH-expressing Bacteroides is found at high abundance in the stools of colorectal cancer (CRC) patients with overweight and in the feces of a high-fat diet (HFD)-induced CRC mouse model. Colonization of B. fragilis 638R, a strain with low BSH activity, overexpressing a recombinant bsh gene from B. fragilis NCTC9343 strain, results in increased unconjugated bile acids in the colon and accelerated progression of CRC under HFD treatment. In the presence of high BSH activity, the resultant elevation of unconjugated deoxycholic acid and lithocholic acid activates the G-protein-coupled bile acid receptor, resulting in increased β-catenin-regulated chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 28 (CCL28) expression in colon tumors. Activation of the β-catenin/CCL28 axis leads to elevated intra-tumoral immunosuppressive CD25+FOXP3+ Treg cells. Blockade of the β-catenin/CCL28 axis releases the immunosuppression to enhance the intra-tumoral anti-tumor response, which decreases CRC progression under HFD treatment. Pharmacological inhibition of BSH reduces HFD-accelerated CRC progression, coincident with suppression of the β-catenin/CCL28 pathway. These findings provide insights into the pro-carcinogenetic role of Bacteroides in obesity-related CRC progression and characterize BSH as a potential target for CRC prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lulu Sun
- Laboratory of Metabolism, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Yi Zhang
- Department of General Surgery, Cancer Center, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Jie Cai
- Laboratory of Metabolism, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Bipin Rimal
- Center for Molecular Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Department of Veterinary & Biomedical Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Edson R Rocha
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, 27834, USA
| | - James P Coleman
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, 27834, USA
| | - Chenran Zhang
- Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Robert G Nichols
- Center for Molecular Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Department of Veterinary & Biomedical Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Yuhong Luo
- Laboratory of Metabolism, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Bora Kim
- Laboratory of Metabolism, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Yaozong Chen
- Laboratory of Metabolism, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Kristopher W Krausz
- Laboratory of Metabolism, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Curtis C Harris
- Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Andrew D Patterson
- Center for Molecular Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, Department of Veterinary & Biomedical Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
| | - Zhipeng Zhang
- Department of General Surgery, Cancer Center, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, 100191, China.
| | - Shogo Takahashi
- Laboratory of Metabolism, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.
| | - Frank J Gonzalez
- Laboratory of Metabolism, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.
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17
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Fare CM, Rhine K, Lam A, Myong S, Shorter J. A minimal construct of nuclear-import receptor Karyopherin-β2 defines the regions critical for chaperone and disaggregation activity. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:102806. [PMID: 36529289 PMCID: PMC9860449 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Karyopherin-β2 (Kapβ2) is a nuclear-import receptor that recognizes proline-tyrosine nuclear localization signals of diverse cytoplasmic cargo for transport to the nucleus. Kapβ2 cargo includes several disease-linked RNA-binding proteins with prion-like domains, such as FUS, TAF15, EWSR1, hnRNPA1, and hnRNPA2. These RNA-binding proteins with prion-like domains are linked via pathology and genetics to debilitating degenerative disorders, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, frontotemporal dementia, and multisystem proteinopathy. Remarkably, Kapβ2 prevents and reverses aberrant phase transitions of these cargoes, which is cytoprotective. However, the molecular determinants of Kapβ2 that enable these activities remain poorly understood, particularly from the standpoint of nuclear-import receptor architecture. Kapβ2 is a super-helical protein comprised of 20 HEAT repeats. Here, we design truncated variants of Kapβ2 and assess their ability to antagonize FUS aggregation and toxicity in yeast and FUS condensation at the pure protein level and in human cells. We find that HEAT repeats 8 to 20 of Kapβ2 recapitulate all salient features of Kapβ2 activity. By contrast, Kapβ2 truncations lacking even a single cargo-binding HEAT repeat display reduced activity. Thus, we define a minimal Kapβ2 construct for delivery in adeno-associated viruses as a potential therapeutic for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/frontotemporal dementia, multisystem proteinopathy, and related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte M Fare
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA; Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Kevin Rhine
- Program in Cell, Molecular, Developmental Biology, and Biophysics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; Department of Biophysics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Andrew Lam
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Sua Myong
- Program in Cell, Molecular, Developmental Biology, and Biophysics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; Department of Biophysics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - James Shorter
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA; Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
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18
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Abstract
Most cells live in environments that are permissive for proliferation only a small fraction of the time. Entering quiescence enables cells to survive long periods of nondivision and reenter the cell cycle when signaled to do so. Here, we describe what is known about the molecular basis for quiescence in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, with emphasis on the progress made in the last decade. Quiescence is triggered by depletion of an essential nutrient. It begins well before nutrient exhaustion, and there is extensive crosstalk between signaling pathways to ensure that all proliferation-specific activities are stopped when any one essential nutrient is limiting. Every aspect of gene expression is modified to redirect and conserve resources. Chromatin structure and composition change on a global scale, from histone modifications to three-dimensional chromatin structure. Thousands of proteins and RNAs aggregate, forming unique structures with unique fates, and the cytoplasm transitions to a glass-like state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda L Breeden
- Basic Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, Washington, USA; ,
| | - Toshio Tsukiyama
- Basic Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, Washington, USA; ,
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19
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Multiple roles for the cytoskeleton in ALS. Exp Neurol 2022; 355:114143. [PMID: 35714755 PMCID: PMC10163623 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2022.114143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Revised: 06/05/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease caused by more than sixty genes identified through classic linkage analysis and new sequencing methods. Yet no clear mechanism of onset, cure, or effective treatment is known. Popular discourse classifies the proteins encoded from ALS-related genes into four disrupted processes: proteostasis, mitochondrial function and ROS, nucleic acid regulation, and cytoskeletal dynamics. Surprisingly, the mechanisms detailing the contribution of the neuronal cytoskeletal in ALS are the least explored, despite involvement in these cell processes. Eight genes directly regulate properties of cytoskeleton function and are essential for the health and survival of motor neurons, including: TUBA4A, SPAST, KIF5A, DCTN1, NF, PRPH, ALS2, and PFN1. Here we review the properties and studies exploring the contribution of each of these genes to ALS.
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20
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Yasuda K, Watanabe TM, Kang MG, Seo JK, Rhee HW, Tate SI. Valosin-containing protein (VCP) regulates the stability of fused in sarcoma (FUS) granules in cells by changing ATP concentrations. FEBS Lett 2022; 596:1412-1423. [PMID: 35445401 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Revised: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Fused in sarcoma (FUS), a DNA/RNA-binding protein, undergoes liquid-liquid phase separation to form granules in cells. Aberrant FUS granulation is associated with neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal lobar degeneration. We found that FUS granules contain a multifunctional AAA ATPase, valosin-containing protein (VCP), which is known as a key regulator of protein degradation. FUS granule stability depends on ATP concentrations in cells. VCP ATPase changes the FUS granule stability time-dependently by consuming ATP to reduce its concentrations in the granules: VCPs in de novo FUS granules stabilize the granules, while long-lasting VCP colocalization destabilizes the granules. The proteolysis-promoting function of VCP may subsequently dissolve the unstabilized granules. We propose that VCP colocalized to the FUS granules acts as a timer to limit the residence time of the granules in cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyota Yasuda
- Department of Mathematical and Life Sciences, Graduate School of Integrated Sciences for Life, Hiroshima University, 1-3-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima, 739-8526, Japan.,Research Center for the Mathematics on Chromatin Live Dynamics (RcMcD), Hiroshima University, 1-3-1, Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima, 739-8526, Japan
| | - Tomonobu M Watanabe
- Laboratory for Comprehensive Bioimaging, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research (BDR), Minatomachi-Minami 2-2-3, Chuo-ku, Kobe, Hyogo, 650-0047, Japan.,Department of Stem Cell Biology, Research Institute for Radiation Biology and Medicine, Hiroshima University, Kasumi 1-2-3, Minami-Ku, Hiroshima, 734-8553, Japan
| | - Myeong-Gyun Kang
- Department of Chemistry, School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
| | - Jeong Kon Seo
- UNIST Central Research Facilities (UCRF), Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, 44919, Korea
| | - Hyun-Woo Rhee
- Department of Chemistry, School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
| | - Shin-Ichi Tate
- Department of Mathematical and Life Sciences, Graduate School of Integrated Sciences for Life, Hiroshima University, 1-3-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima, 739-8526, Japan.,Research Center for the Mathematics on Chromatin Live Dynamics (RcMcD), Hiroshima University, 1-3-1, Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima, 739-8526, Japan
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21
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Sprunger ML, Lee K, Sohn BS, Jackrel ME. Molecular determinants and modifiers of Matrin-3 toxicity, condensate dynamics, and droplet morphology. iScience 2022; 25:103900. [PMID: 35252808 PMCID: PMC8889142 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.103900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Revised: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Matrin-3 (MATR3) is a DNA- and RNA-binding protein implicated in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), frontotemporal dementia (FTD), and distal myopathy. Here, we report the development of a yeast model of MATR3 proteotoxicity and aggregation. MATR3 is toxic and forms dynamic shell-like nuclear condensates in yeast. Disease-associated mutations in MATR3 impair condensate dynamics and disrupt condensate morphology. MATR3 toxicity is largely driven by its RNA-recognitions motifs (RRMs). Further, deletion of one or both RRMs drives coalescence of these condensates. Aberrant phase separation of several different RBPs underpins ALS/FTD, and we have engineered Hsp104 variants to reverse this misfolding. Here, we demonstrate that these same variants also counter MATR3 toxicity. We suggest that these Hsp104 variants which rescue MATR3, TDP-43, and FUS toxicity might be employed against a range of ALS/FTD-associated proteins. We anticipate that our yeast model could be a useful platform to screen for modulators of MATR3 misfolding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Macy L. Sprunger
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Ken Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Brian S. Sohn
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
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22
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Carey JL, Guo L. Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation of TDP-43 and FUS in Physiology and Pathology of Neurodegenerative Diseases. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:826719. [PMID: 35187086 PMCID: PMC8847598 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.826719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Liquid-liquid phase separation of RNA-binding proteins mediates the formation of numerous membraneless organelles with essential cellular function. However, aberrant phase transition of these proteins leads to the formation of insoluble protein aggregates, which are pathological hallmarks of neurodegenerative diseases including ALS and FTD. TDP-43 and FUS are two such RNA-binding proteins that mislocalize and aggregate in patients of ALS and FTD. They have similar domain structures that provide multivalent interactions driving their phase separation in vitro and in the cellular environment. In this article, we review the factors that mediate and regulate phase separation of TDP-43 and FUS. We also review evidences that connect the phase separation property of TDP-43 and FUS to their functional roles in cells. Aberrant phase transition of TDP-43 and FUS leads to protein aggregation and disrupts their regular cell function. Therefore, restoration of functional protein phase of TDP-43 and FUS could be beneficial for neuronal cells. We discuss possible mechanisms for TDP-43 and FUS aberrant phase transition and aggregation while reviewing the methods that are currently being explored as potential therapeutic strategies to mitigate aberrant phase transition and aggregation of TDP-43 and FUS.
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23
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Moriarty RA, Mili S, Stroka KM. RNA localization in confined cells depends on cellular mechanical activity and contributes to confined migration. iScience 2022; 25:103845. [PMID: 35198898 PMCID: PMC8850802 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.103845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer cells experience mechanical confining forces during metastasis and, consequently, can alter their migratory mechanisms. Localization of numerous mRNAs to cell protrusions contributes to cell polarization and migration and is controlled by proteins that can bind RNA and/or cytoskeletal elements, such as the adenomatous polyposis coli (APC). Here, we demonstrate that peripheral localization of APC-dependent RNAs in cells within confined microchannels is cell type dependent. This varying phenotype is determined by the levels of a detyrosinated tubulin network. We show that this network is regulated by mechanoactivity and that cells with mechanosensitive ion channels and increased myosin II activity direct peripheral localization of the RAB13 APC-dependent RNA. Through specific mislocalization of the RAB13 RNA, we show that peripheral RNA localization contributes to confined cell migration. Our results indicate that a cell’s mechanical activity determines its ability to peripherally target RNAs and utilize them for movement in confinement. Peripheral localization of APC-dependent RNAs in confinement depends on cell type RNA localization in confined cells is controlled by the mechanoactivity of cells RNA localization phenotype is influenced by the detyrosinated tubulin network Peripheral RNA accumulation functionally contributes to confined cell migration
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca A. Moriarty
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland College Park, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Stavroula Mili
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
- Corresponding author
| | - Kimberly M. Stroka
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland College Park, College Park, MD 20742, USA
- Maryland Biophysics Program, University of Maryland College Park, College Park, MD 20742, USA
- Center for Stem Cell Biology & Regenerative Medicine, University of Maryland Baltimore, Baltimore, MD 21202, USA
- Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Maryland Baltimore, Baltimore, MD 21202, USA
- Corresponding author
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24
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Odeh HM, Fare CM, Shorter J. Nuclear-Import Receptors Counter Deleterious Phase Transitions in Neurodegenerative Disease. J Mol Biol 2022; 434:167220. [PMID: 34464655 PMCID: PMC8748273 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2021.167220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Nuclear-import receptors (NIRs) engage nuclear-localization signals (NLSs) of polypeptides in the cytoplasm and transport these cargo across the size-selective barrier of the nuclear-pore complex into the nucleoplasm. Beyond this canonical role in nuclear transport, NIRs operate in the cytoplasm to chaperone and disaggregate NLS-bearing clients. Indeed, NIRs can inhibit and reverse functional and deleterious phase transitions of their cargo, including several prominent neurodegenerative disease-linked RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) with prion-like domains (PrLDs), such as TDP-43, FUS, EWSR1, TAF15, hnRNPA1, and hnRNPA2. Importantly, elevated NIR expression can mitigate degenerative phenotypes connected to aberrant cytoplasmic aggregation of RBPs with PrLDs. Here, we review recent discoveries that NIRs can also antagonize aberrant interactions and toxicity of arginine-rich, dipeptide-repeat proteins that are associated with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD) caused by G4C2 hexanucleotide repeat expansions in the first intron of C9ORF72. We also highlight recent findings that multiple NIR family members can prevent and reverse liquid-liquid phase separation of specific clients bearing RGG motifs in an NLS-independent manner. Finally, we discuss strategies to enhance NIR activity or expression, which could have therapeutic utility for several neurodegenerative disorders, including ALS, FTD, multisystem proteinopathy, limbic-predominant age-related TDP-43 encephalopathy, tauopathies, and related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hana M Odeh
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Charlotte M Fare
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA. https://twitter.com/CharlotteFare
| | - James Shorter
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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25
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Jablonka S, Hennlein L, Sendtner M. Therapy development for spinal muscular atrophy: perspectives for muscular dystrophies and neurodegenerative disorders. Neurol Res Pract 2022; 4:2. [PMID: 34983696 PMCID: PMC8725368 DOI: 10.1186/s42466-021-00162-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Major efforts have been made in the last decade to develop and improve therapies for proximal spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). The introduction of Nusinersen/Spinraza™ as an antisense oligonucleotide therapy, Onasemnogene abeparvovec/Zolgensma™ as an AAV9-based gene therapy and Risdiplam/Evrysdi™ as a small molecule modifier of pre-mRNA splicing have set new standards for interference with neurodegeneration. MAIN BODY Therapies for SMA are designed to interfere with the cellular basis of the disease by modifying pre-mRNA splicing and enhancing expression of the Survival Motor Neuron (SMN) protein, which is only expressed at low levels in this disorder. The corresponding strategies also can be applied to other disease mechanisms caused by loss of function or toxic gain of function mutations. The development of therapies for SMA was based on the use of cell culture systems and mouse models, as well as innovative clinical trials that included readouts that had originally been introduced and optimized in preclinical studies. This is summarized in the first part of this review. The second part discusses current developments and perspectives for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, muscular dystrophies, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease, as well as the obstacles that need to be overcome to introduce RNA-based therapies and gene therapies for these disorders. CONCLUSION RNA-based therapies offer chances for therapy development of complex neurodegenerative disorders such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, muscular dystrophies, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease. The experiences made with these new drugs for SMA, and also the experiences in AAV gene therapies could help to broaden the spectrum of current approaches to interfere with pathophysiological mechanisms in neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sibylle Jablonka
- Institute of Clinical Neurobiology, University Hospital of Wuerzburg, Versbacher Str. 5, 97078, Wuerzburg, Germany.
| | - Luisa Hennlein
- Institute of Clinical Neurobiology, University Hospital of Wuerzburg, Versbacher Str. 5, 97078, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Michael Sendtner
- Institute of Clinical Neurobiology, University Hospital of Wuerzburg, Versbacher Str. 5, 97078, Wuerzburg, Germany.
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26
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Gasparski AN, Mason DE, Moissoglu K, Mili S. Regulation and outcomes of localized RNA translation. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. RNA 2022; 13:e1721. [PMID: 35166036 PMCID: PMC9787767 DOI: 10.1002/wrna.1721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Spatial segregation of mRNAs in the cytoplasm of cells is a well-known biological phenomenon that is widely observed in diverse species spanning different kingdoms of life. In mammalian cells, localization of mRNAs has been documented and studied quite extensively in highly polarized cells, most notably in neurons, where localized mRNAs function to direct protein production at sites that are quite distant from the soma. Recent studies have strikingly revealed that a large proportion of the cellular transcriptome exhibits polarized distributions even in cells that lack an obvious need for long-range transport, such as fibroblasts or epithelial cells. This review focuses on emerging concepts regarding the functional outcomes of mRNA targeting in the cytoplasm of such cells. We also discuss regulatory mechanisms controlling these events, with an emphasis on the role of cell mechanics and the organization of the cytoskeleton. This article is categorized under: Translation > Regulation RNA Export and Localization > RNA Localization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander N. Gasparski
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Cancer ResearchNational Cancer Institute, NIHBethesdaMarylandUSA
| | - Devon E. Mason
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Cancer ResearchNational Cancer Institute, NIHBethesdaMarylandUSA
| | - Konstadinos Moissoglu
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Cancer ResearchNational Cancer Institute, NIHBethesdaMarylandUSA
| | - Stavroula Mili
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Cancer ResearchNational Cancer Institute, NIHBethesdaMarylandUSA
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27
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Pichon X, Moissoglu K, Coleno E, Wang T, Imbert A, Robert MC, Peter M, Chouaib R, Walter T, Mueller F, Zibara K, Bertrand E, Mili S. The kinesin KIF1C transports APC-dependent mRNAs to cell protrusions. RNA (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2021; 27:1528-1544. [PMID: 34493599 PMCID: PMC8594469 DOI: 10.1261/rna.078576.120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
RNA localization and local translation are important for numerous cellular functions. In mammals, a class of mRNAs localize to cytoplasmic protrusions in an APC-dependent manner, with roles during cell migration. Here, we investigated this localization mechanism. We found that the KIF1C motor interacts with APC-dependent mRNAs and is required for their localization. Live cell imaging revealed rapid, active transport of single mRNAs over long distances that requires both microtubules and KIF1C. Two-color imaging directly revealed single mRNAs transported by single KIF1C motors, with the 3'UTR being sufficient to trigger KIF1C-dependent RNA transport and localization. Moreover, KIF1C remained associated with peripheral, multimeric RNA clusters and was required for their formation. These results reveal a widespread RNA transport pathway in mammalian cells, in which the KIF1C motor has a dual role in transporting RNAs and clustering them within cytoplasmic protrusions. Interestingly, KIF1C also transports its own mRNA, suggesting a possible feedback loop acting at the level of mRNA transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Pichon
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34293 Montpellier, France
- Equipe labélisée Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34000 Montpellier, France
| | - Konstadinos Moissoglu
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, USA
| | - Emeline Coleno
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34293 Montpellier, France
- Equipe labélisée Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34000 Montpellier, France
- Institut de Génétique Humaine, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34396 Montpellier, France
| | - Tianhong Wang
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, USA
| | - Arthur Imbert
- MINES ParisTech, PSL-Research University, CBIO-Centre for Computational Biology, 77300 Fontainebleau, France
- Institut Curie, 75248 Paris Cedex, France
- INSERM, U900, 75248 Paris Cedex, France
| | - Marie-Cécile Robert
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34293 Montpellier, France
- Equipe labélisée Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34000 Montpellier, France
- Institut de Génétique Humaine, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34396 Montpellier, France
| | - Marion Peter
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34293 Montpellier, France
- Equipe labélisée Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34000 Montpellier, France
| | - Racha Chouaib
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34293 Montpellier, France
- Equipe labélisée Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34000 Montpellier, France
- Biology Department, Faculty of Sciences-I, Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Thomas Walter
- MINES ParisTech, PSL-Research University, CBIO-Centre for Computational Biology, 77300 Fontainebleau, France
- Institut Curie, 75248 Paris Cedex, France
- INSERM, U900, 75248 Paris Cedex, France
| | - Florian Mueller
- Unité Imagerie et Modélisation, Institut Pasteur and CNRS UMR 3691, 75015 Paris, France
- C3BI, USR 3756 IP CNRS - Paris, France
| | - Kazem Zibara
- Biology Department, Faculty of Sciences-I, Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon
- ER045, PRASE, DSST, Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Edouard Bertrand
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34293 Montpellier, France
- Equipe labélisée Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34000 Montpellier, France
- Institut de Génétique Humaine, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34396 Montpellier, France
| | - Stavroula Mili
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, USA
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28
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Savulescu AF, Bouilhol E, Beaume N, Nikolski M. Prediction of RNA subcellular localization: Learning from heterogeneous data sources. iScience 2021; 24:103298. [PMID: 34765919 PMCID: PMC8571491 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.103298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
RNA subcellular localization has recently emerged as a widespread phenomenon, which may apply to the majority of RNAs. The two main sources of data for characterization of RNA localization are sequence features and microscopy images, such as obtained from single-molecule fluorescent in situ hybridization-based techniques. Although such imaging data are ideal for characterization of RNA distribution, these techniques remain costly, time-consuming, and technically challenging. Given these limitations, imaging data exist only for a limited number of RNAs. We argue that the field of RNA localization would greatly benefit from complementary techniques able to characterize location of RNA. Here we discuss the importance of RNA localization and the current methodology in the field, followed by an introduction on prediction of location of molecules. We then suggest a machine learning approach based on the integration between imaging localization data and sequence-based data to assist in characterization of RNA localization on a transcriptome level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anca Flavia Savulescu
- Division of Chemical, Systems & Synthetic Biology, Institute for Infectious Disease & Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, 7925 Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Emmanuel Bouilhol
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux Bioinformatics Center, Bordeaux, France
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, IBGC, UMR 5095, Bordeaux, France
| | - Nicolas Beaume
- Division of Medical Virology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town,7925 Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Macha Nikolski
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux Bioinformatics Center, Bordeaux, France
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, IBGC, UMR 5095, Bordeaux, France
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29
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Savulescu AF, Brackin R, Bouilhol E, Dartigues B, Warrell JH, Pimentel MR, Beaume N, Fortunato IC, Dallongeville S, Boulle M, Soueidan H, Agou F, Schmoranzer J, Olivo-Marin JC, Franco CA, Gomes ER, Nikolski M, Mhlanga MM. Interrogating RNA and protein spatial subcellular distribution in smFISH data with DypFISH. CELL REPORTS METHODS 2021; 1:100068. [PMID: 35474672 PMCID: PMC9017151 DOI: 10.1016/j.crmeth.2021.100068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Advances in single-cell RNA sequencing have allowed for the identification of cellular subtypes on the basis of quantification of the number of transcripts in each cell. However, cells might also differ in the spatial distribution of molecules, including RNAs. Here, we present DypFISH, an approach to quantitatively investigate the subcellular localization of RNA and protein. We introduce a range of analytical techniques to interrogate single-molecule RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH) data in combination with protein immunolabeling. DypFISH is suited to study patterns of clustering of molecules, the association of mRNA-protein subcellular localization with microtubule organizing center orientation, and interdependence of mRNA-protein spatial distributions. We showcase how our analytical tools can achieve biological insights by utilizing cell micropatterning to constrain cellular architecture, which leads to reduction in subcellular mRNA distribution variation, allowing for the characterization of their localization patterns. Furthermore, we show that our method can be applied to physiological systems such as skeletal muscle fibers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anca F. Savulescu
- Division of Chemical, Systems & Synthetic Biology, Institute for Infectious Disease & Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, 7295 Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Robyn Brackin
- Advanced Medical Bioimaging, Charité – Universitätsmedizin, 10-117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Emmanuel Bouilhol
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux Bioinformatics Center, 33000 Bordeaux, France
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, IBGC, UMR 5095, 33077 Bordeaux, France
| | - Benjamin Dartigues
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux Bioinformatics Center, 33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - Jonathan H. Warrell
- Molecular Biophysics & Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Mafalda R. Pimentel
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-028 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Nicolas Beaume
- Division of Chemical, Systems & Synthetic Biology, Institute for Infectious Disease & Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, 7295 Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Isabela C. Fortunato
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-028 Lisbon, Portugal
| | | | - Mikaël Boulle
- Chemogenomic and Biological Screening Core Facility, C2RT, Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry, Institut Pasteur, 25 rue du Dr. Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
- Université de Paris, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Hayssam Soueidan
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux Bioinformatics Center, 33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - Fabrice Agou
- Chemogenomic and Biological Screening Core Facility, C2RT, Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry, Institut Pasteur, 25 rue du Dr. Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
- Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry, URA 2185, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France
| | - Jan Schmoranzer
- Advanced Medical Bioimaging, Charité – Universitätsmedizin, 10-117 Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Claudio A. Franco
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-028 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Edgar R. Gomes
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-028 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Macha Nikolski
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux Bioinformatics Center, 33000 Bordeaux, France
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, IBGC, UMR 5095, 33077 Bordeaux, France
| | - Musa M. Mhlanga
- Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
- Epigenomics & Single Cell Biophysics Group, Department of Cell Biology, FNWI, Radboud University, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
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30
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Chen L, Hu Q, Liu H, Zhao Y, Chan SO, Wang J. Nogo-A Induced Polymerization of Microtubule Is Involved in the Inflammatory Heat Hyperalgesia in Rat Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms221910360. [PMID: 34638704 PMCID: PMC8508904 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The microtubule, a major constituent of cytoskeletons, was shown to bind and interact with transient receptor potential vanilloid subfamily member 1 (TRPV1), and serves a pivotal role to produce thermal hyperalgesia in inflammatory pain. Nogo-A is a modulator of microtubule assembly and plays a key role in maintaining the function of TRPV1 in inflammatory heat pain. However, whether the microtubule dynamics modulated by Nogo-A in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons participate in the inflammatory pain is not elucidated. Here we reported that the polymerization of microtubules in the DRG neurons, as indicated by the acetylated α-tubulin, tubulin polymerization-promoting protein 3 (TPPP3), and microtubule numbers, was significantly elevated in the complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA) induced inflammatory pain. Consistent with our previous results, knock-out (KO) of Nogo-A protein significantly attenuated the heat hyperalgesia 72 h after CFA injection and decreased the microtubule polymerization via up-regulation of phosphorylation of collapsin response mediator protein 2 (CRMP2) in DRG. The colocalization of acetylated α-tubulin and TRPV1 in DRG neurons was also reduced dramatically in Nogo-A KO rats under inflammatory pain. Moreover, the down-regulation of TRPV1 in DRG of Nogo-A KO rats after injection of CFA was reversed by intrathecal injection of paclitaxel, a microtubule stabilizer. Furthermore, intrathecal injection of nocodazole (a microtubule disruptor) attenuated significantly the CFA-induced inflammatory heat hyperalgesia and the mechanical pain in a rat model of spared nerve injury (SNI). In these SNI cases, the Nogo-A and acetylated α-tubulin in DRG were also significantly up-regulated. We conclude that the polymerization of microtubules promoted by Nogo-A in DRG contributes to the development of inflammatory heat hyperalgesia mediated by TRPV1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Chen
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology & Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; (L.C.); (Q.H.); (H.L.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Qiguo Hu
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology & Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; (L.C.); (Q.H.); (H.L.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Huaicun Liu
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology & Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; (L.C.); (Q.H.); (H.L.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Yan Zhao
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology & Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; (L.C.); (Q.H.); (H.L.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Sun-On Chan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
- Correspondence: (S.-O.C.); (J.W.); Tel.: +85-2-3943-6898 (S.-O.C.); +86-10-8280-1119 (J.W.)
| | - Jun Wang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Histology & Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; (L.C.); (Q.H.); (H.L.); (Y.Z.)
- Correspondence: (S.-O.C.); (J.W.); Tel.: +85-2-3943-6898 (S.-O.C.); +86-10-8280-1119 (J.W.)
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Tejido C, Pakravan D, Bosch LVD. Potential Therapeutic Role of HDAC Inhibitors in FUS-ALS. Front Mol Neurosci 2021; 14:686995. [PMID: 34434087 PMCID: PMC8380926 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2021.686995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the FUS gene cause amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS-FUS). However, the exact pathogenic mechanism of mutant fused in sarcoma (FUS) protein is not completely understood. FUS is an RNA binding protein (RBP) localized predominantly in the nucleus, but ALS-linked FUS mutations can affect its nuclear localization signal impairing its import into the nucleus. This mislocalization to the cytoplasm facilitates FUS aggregation in cytoplasmic inclusions. Therapies targeting post translational modifications are rising as new treatments for ALS, in particular acetylation which could have a role in the dynamics of RBPs. Research using histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors in FUS-ALS models showed that HDACs can influence cytoplasmic FUS localization. Inhibition of HDACs could promote acetylation of the FUS RNA binding domain (RRM) and altering its RNA interactions resulting in FUS maintenance in the nucleus. In addition, acetylation of FUS RRMs might also favor or disfavor its incorporation into pathological inclusions. In this review, we summarize and discuss the evidence for the potential role of HDACs in the context of FUS-ALS and we propose a new hypothesis based on this overview.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Tejido
- Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie (VIB), Center for Brain and Disease Research, Laboratory of Neurobiology, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Donya Pakravan
- Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie (VIB), Center for Brain and Disease Research, Laboratory of Neurobiology, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Neurosciences, Experimental Neurology, Leuven Brain Institute, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KU Leuven)-University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Ludo Van Den Bosch
- Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie (VIB), Center for Brain and Disease Research, Laboratory of Neurobiology, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Neurosciences, Experimental Neurology, Leuven Brain Institute, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KU Leuven)-University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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32
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Ismail H, Liu X, Yang F, Li J, Zahid A, Dou Z, Liu X, Yao X. Mechanisms and regulation underlying membraneless organelle plasticity control. J Mol Cell Biol 2021; 13:239-258. [PMID: 33914074 PMCID: PMC8339361 DOI: 10.1093/jmcb/mjab028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2020] [Revised: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Evolution has enabled living cells to adopt their structural and functional complexity by organizing intricate cellular compartments, such as membrane-bound and membraneless organelles (MLOs), for spatiotemporal catalysis of physiochemical reactions essential for cell plasticity control. Emerging evidence and view support the notion that MLOs are built by multivalent interactions of biomolecules via phase separation and transition mechanisms. In healthy cells, dynamic chemical modifications regulate MLO plasticity, and reversible phase separation is essential for cell homeostasis. Emerging evidence revealed that aberrant phase separation results in numerous neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, and other diseases. In this review, we provide molecular underpinnings on (i) mechanistic understanding of phase separation, (ii) unifying structural and mechanistic principles that underlie this phenomenon, (iii) various mechanisms that are used by cells for the regulation of phase separation, and (iv) emerging therapeutic and other applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazrat Ismail
- MOE Key Laboratory for Membraneless Organelles & Cellular Dynamics and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
| | - Xu Liu
- MOE Key Laboratory for Membraneless Organelles & Cellular Dynamics and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
- Keck Center for Organoids Plasticity Control, Atlanta, GA 30310, USA
| | - Fengrui Yang
- MOE Key Laboratory for Membraneless Organelles & Cellular Dynamics and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
- Keck Center for Organoids Plasticity Control, Atlanta, GA 30310, USA
| | - Junying Li
- MOE Key Laboratory for Membraneless Organelles & Cellular Dynamics and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
- Anhui Key Laboratory for Cellular Dynamics & Chemical Biology, Hefei 230027, China
| | - Ayesha Zahid
- MOE Key Laboratory for Membraneless Organelles & Cellular Dynamics and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
| | - Zhen Dou
- MOE Key Laboratory for Membraneless Organelles & Cellular Dynamics and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
| | - Xing Liu
- MOE Key Laboratory for Membraneless Organelles & Cellular Dynamics and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
- Anhui Key Laboratory for Cellular Dynamics & Chemical Biology, Hefei 230027, China
| | - Xuebiao Yao
- MOE Key Laboratory for Membraneless Organelles & Cellular Dynamics and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
- Anhui Key Laboratory for Cellular Dynamics & Chemical Biology, Hefei 230027, China
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33
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Zaepfel BL, Rothstein JD. RNA Is a Double-Edged Sword in ALS Pathogenesis. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 15:708181. [PMID: 34349625 PMCID: PMC8326408 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.708181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive and fatal neurodegenerative disease that affects upper and lower motor neurons. Familial ALS accounts for a small subset of cases (<10-15%) and is caused by dominant mutations in one of more than 10 known genes. Multiple genes have been causally or pathologically linked to both ALS and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Many of these genes encode RNA-binding proteins, so the role of dysregulated RNA metabolism in neurodegeneration is being actively investigated. In addition to defects in RNA metabolism, recent studies provide emerging evidence into how RNA itself can contribute to the degeneration of both motor and cortical neurons. In this review, we discuss the roles of altered RNA metabolism and RNA-mediated toxicity in the context of TARDBP, FUS, and C9ORF72 mutations. Specifically, we focus on recent studies that describe toxic RNA as the potential initiator of disease, disease-associated defects in specific RNA metabolism pathways, as well as how RNA-based approaches can be used as potential therapies. Altogether, we highlight the importance of RNA-based investigations into the molecular progression of ALS, as well as the need for RNA-dependent structural studies of disease-linked RNA-binding proteins to identify clear therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin L Zaepfel
- Biochemistry, Cellular and Molecular Biology Program, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States.,Molecular Biology and Genetics Department, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Jeffrey D Rothstein
- Brain Science Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States.,Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
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34
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Sprunger ML, Jackrel ME. Prion-Like Proteins in Phase Separation and Their Link to Disease. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11071014. [PMID: 34356638 PMCID: PMC8301953 DOI: 10.3390/biom11071014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Revised: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Aberrant protein folding underpins many neurodegenerative diseases as well as certain myopathies and cancers. Protein misfolding can be driven by the presence of distinctive prion and prion-like regions within certain proteins. These prion and prion-like regions have also been found to drive liquid-liquid phase separation. Liquid-liquid phase separation is thought to be an important physiological process, but one that is prone to malfunction. Thus, aberrant liquid-to-solid phase transitions may drive protein aggregation and fibrillization, which could give rise to pathological inclusions. Here, we review prions and prion-like proteins, their roles in phase separation and disease, as well as potential therapeutic approaches to counter aberrant phase transitions.
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35
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Ryan JJ, Bao A, Bell B, Ling C, Jackrel ME. Drivers of Hsp104 potentiation revealed by scanning mutagenesis of the middle domain. Protein Sci 2021; 30:1667-1685. [PMID: 34010483 DOI: 10.1002/pro.4126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Hsp104, a yeast protein disaggregase, can be potentiated via numerous missense mutations at disparate locations throughout the coiled-coil middle domain (MD). Potentiated Hsp104 variants can counter the toxicity and misfolding of TDP-43, FUS, and α-synuclein, proteins which are implicated in neurodegenerative disorders. However, potentiated MD variants typically exhibit off-target toxicity. Further, it has remained confounding how numerous degenerate mutations confer potentiation, hampering engineering of therapeutic Hsp104 variants. Here, we sought to comprehensively define the key drivers of Hsp104 potentiation. Using scanning mutagenesis, we iteratively studied the effects of modulation at each position in the Hsp104 MD. Screening this library to identify enhanced variants reveals that missense mutations at 26% of positions in the MD yield variants that counter FUS toxicity. Modulation of the helix 2-helix 3/4 MD interface potentiates Hsp104, whereas mutations in the analogous helix 1-2 interface do not. Surprisingly, we find that there is a higher likelihood of enhancing Hsp104 activity against human disease substrates than impairing Hsp104 native function. We find that single mutations can broadly destabilize the MD structure and lead to functional potentiation, suggesting this may be a common mechanism conferring Hsp104 potentiation. Using this approach, we have demonstrated that modulation of the MD can yield engineered variants with decreased off-target effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy J Ryan
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Aaron Bao
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Braxton Bell
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Cendi Ling
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Meredith E Jackrel
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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36
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Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases and other protein-misfolding disorders represent a longstanding biomedical challenge, and effective therapies remain largely elusive. This failure is due, in part, to the recalcitrant and diverse nature of misfolded protein conformers. Recent work has uncovered that many aggregation-prone proteins can also undergo liquid-liquid phase separation, a process by which macromolecules self-associate to form dense condensates with liquid properties that are compositionally distinct from the bulk cellular milieu. Efforts to combat diseases caused by toxic protein states focus on exploiting or enhancing the proteostasis machinery to prevent and reverse pathological protein conformations. Here, we discuss recent advances in elucidating and engineering therapeutic agents to combat the diverse aberrant protein states that underlie protein-misfolding disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte M. Fare
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - James Shorter
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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37
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RNA transport and local translation in neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disease. Nat Neurosci 2021; 24:622-632. [PMID: 33510479 PMCID: PMC8860725 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-020-00785-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Neurons decentralize protein synthesis from the cell body to support the active metabolism of remote dendritic and axonal compartments. The neuronal RNA transport apparatus, composed of cis-acting RNA regulatory elements, neuronal transport granule proteins, and motor adaptor complexes, drives the long-distance RNA trafficking required for local protein synthesis. Over the past decade, advances in human genetics, subcellular biochemistry, and high-resolution imaging have implicated each member of the apparatus in several neurodegenerative diseases, establishing failed RNA transport and associated processes as a unifying pathomechanism. In this review, we deconstruct the RNA transport apparatus, exploring each constituent's role in RNA localization and illuminating their unique contributions to neurodegeneration.
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38
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Solomon DA, Smikle R, Reid MJ, Mizielinska S. Altered Phase Separation and Cellular Impact in C9orf72-Linked ALS/FTD. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 15:664151. [PMID: 33967699 PMCID: PMC8096919 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.664151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the discovery of the C9orf72 repeat expansion mutation as causative for chromosome 9-linked amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD) in 2011, a multitude of cellular pathways have been implicated. However, evidence has also been accumulating for a key mechanism of cellular compartmentalization—phase separation. Liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) is fundamental for the formation of membraneless organelles including stress granules, the nucleolus, Cajal bodies, nuclear speckles and the central channel of the nuclear pore. Evidence has now accumulated showing that the formation and function of these membraneless organelles is impaired by both the toxic arginine rich dipeptide repeat proteins (DPRs), translated from the C9orf72 repeat RNA transcript, and the repeat RNA itself. Both the arginine rich DPRs and repeat RNA themselves undergo phase separation and disrupt the physiological phase separation of proteins involved in the formation of these liquid-like organelles. Hence abnormal phase separation may explain a number of pathological cellular phenomena associated with C9orf72-ALS/FTD. In this review article, we will discuss the principles of phase separation, phase separation of the DPRs and repeat RNA themselves and how they perturb LLPS associated with membraneless organelles and the functional consequences of this. We will then discuss how phase separation may impact the major pathological feature of C9orf72-ALS/FTD, TDP-43 proteinopathy, and how LLPS may be targeted therapeutically in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel A Solomon
- UK Dementia Research Institute at King's College London, London, United Kingdom.,Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, Maurice Wohl Clinical Neuroscience Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rebekah Smikle
- Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, Maurice Wohl Clinical Neuroscience Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew J Reid
- Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, Maurice Wohl Clinical Neuroscience Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah Mizielinska
- UK Dementia Research Institute at King's College London, London, United Kingdom.,Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, Maurice Wohl Clinical Neuroscience Institute, London, United Kingdom
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39
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Creekmore BC, Chang YW, Lee EB. The Cryo-EM Effect: Structural Biology of Neurodegenerative Disease Proteostasis Factors. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2021; 80:494-513. [PMID: 33860329 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/nlab029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by the accumulation of misfolded proteins. This protein aggregation suggests that abnormal proteostasis contributes to aging-related neurodegeneration. A better fundamental understanding of proteins that regulate proteostasis may provide insight into the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative disease and may perhaps reveal novel therapeutic opportunities. The 26S proteasome is the key effector of the ubiquitin-proteasome system responsible for degrading polyubiquitinated proteins. However, additional factors, such as valosin-containing protein (VCP/p97/Cdc48) and C9orf72, play a role in regulation and trafficking of substrates through the normal proteostasis systems of a cell. Nonhuman AAA+ ATPases, such as the disaggregase Hsp104, also provide insights into the biochemical processes that regulate protein aggregation. X-ray crystallography and cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures not bound to substrate have provided meaningful information about the 26S proteasome, VCP, and Hsp104. However, recent cryo-EM structures bound to substrate have provided new information about the function and mechanism of these proteostasis factors. Cryo-EM and cryo-electron tomography data combined with biochemical data have also increased the understanding of C9orf72 and its role in maintaining proteostasis. These structural insights provide a foundation for understanding proteostasis mechanisms with near-atomic resolution upon which insights can be gleaned regarding the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin C Creekmore
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,Graduate Program in Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,Translational Neuropathology Research Laboratory, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Yi-Wei Chang
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Edward B Lee
- Translational Neuropathology Research Laboratory, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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40
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Darling AL, Shorter J. Combating deleterious phase transitions in neurodegenerative disease. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2021; 1868:118984. [PMID: 33549703 PMCID: PMC7965345 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2021.118984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Protein aggregation is a hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases. However, the mechanism that induces pathogenic aggregation is not well understood. Recently, it has emerged that several of the pathological proteins found in an aggregated or mislocalized state in neurodegenerative diseases are also able to undergo liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) under physiological conditions. Although these phase transitions are likely important for various physiological functions, neurodegenerative disease-related mutations and conditions can alter the LLPS behavior of these proteins, which can elicit toxicity. Therefore, therapeutics that antagonize aberrant LLPS may be able to mitigate toxicity and aggregation that is ubiquitous in neurodegenerative disease. Here, we discuss the mechanisms by which aberrant protein phase transitions may contribute to neurodegenerative disease. We also outline potential therapeutic strategies to counter deleterious phases. State without borders: Membrane-less organelles and liquid-liquid phase transitions edited by Vladimir N Uversky.
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Affiliation(s)
- April L Darling
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - James Shorter
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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41
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Chen T, Wang X, Li C, Zhang H, Liu Y, Han D, Li Y, Li Z, Luo D, Zhang N, Zheng M, Chen B, Wang L, Zhao W, Yang Q. CircHIF1A regulated by FUS accelerates triple-negative breast cancer progression by modulating NFIB expression and translocation. Oncogene 2021; 40:2756-2771. [PMID: 33714984 DOI: 10.1038/s41388-021-01739-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Emerging evidence has demonstrated that circular RNAs (circRNAs) play critical roles in the development and progression of human cancer. However, the biological functions and underlying mechanisms of circRNAs in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) remain to be investigated. In our present study, we found that the novel circRNA circHIF1A was significantly overexpressed in breast cancer tissues and that it was associated with metastasis, poor prognosis, and the TNBC subtype. Gain- and loss-of-function experiments were conducted to investigate the biological roles of circHIF1A in TNBC. Overexpression of circHIF1A significantly promoted TNBC growth and metastasis in vitro and in vivo, while knockdown of circHIF1A exerted the opposite effects. Mechanistically, circHIF1A modulated the expression and translocation of NFIB through posttranscriptional and posttranslational modifications, resulting in the activation of the AKT/STAT3 signaling pathway and inhibition of P21. The RNA binding protein FUS could regulate the biogenesis of circHIF1A by interacting with the flanking intron, and FUS was transcriptionally regulated by NFIB, thus forming the circHIF1A/NFIB/FUS positive feedback loop. Moreover, circHIF1A could be packaged into exosomes and was upregulated in the plasma of breast cancer patients. Our findings indicated that circHIF1A played a critical role in the growth and metastasis of TNBC via a positive feedback loop and that circHIF1A could be a promising biomarker for breast cancer diagnosis and a potential therapeutic target for TNBC treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tong Chen
- Department of Breast Surgery, General Surgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Xiaolong Wang
- Department of Breast Surgery, General Surgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Chen Li
- Department of Breast Surgery, General Surgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Hanwen Zhang
- Department of Breast Surgery, General Surgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Ying Liu
- Department of Breast Surgery, General Surgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Dianwen Han
- Department of Breast Surgery, General Surgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Yaming Li
- Department of Breast Surgery, General Surgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Zheng Li
- Department of Breast Surgery, General Surgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Dan Luo
- Department of Breast Surgery, General Surgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Ning Zhang
- Department of Breast Surgery, General Surgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Meizhu Zheng
- Department of Breast Surgery, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Bing Chen
- Pathology Tissue Bank, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Lijuan Wang
- Pathology Tissue Bank, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Wenjing Zhao
- Pathology Tissue Bank, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Qifeng Yang
- Department of Breast Surgery, General Surgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China. .,Pathology Tissue Bank, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China. .,Research Institute of Breast Cancer, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China.
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42
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Microtubules orchestrate local translation to enable cardiac growth. Nat Commun 2021; 12:1547. [PMID: 33707436 PMCID: PMC7952726 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-21685-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypertension, exercise, and pregnancy are common triggers of cardiac remodeling, which occurs primarily through the hypertrophy of individual cardiomyocytes. During hypertrophy, stress-induced signal transduction increases cardiomyocyte transcription and translation, which promotes the addition of new contractile units through poorly understood mechanisms. The cardiomyocyte microtubule network is also implicated in hypertrophy, but via an unknown role. Here, we show that microtubules are indispensable for cardiac growth via spatiotemporal control of the translational machinery. We find that the microtubule motor Kinesin-1 distributes mRNAs and ribosomes along microtubule tracks to discrete domains within the cardiomyocyte. Upon hypertrophic stimulation, microtubules redistribute mRNAs and new protein synthesis to sites of growth at the cell periphery. If the microtubule network is disrupted, mRNAs and ribosomes collapse around the nucleus, which results in mislocalized protein synthesis, the rapid degradation of new proteins, and a failure of growth, despite normally increased translation rates. Together, these data indicate that mRNAs and ribosomes are actively transported to specific sites to facilitate local translation and assembly of contractile units, and suggest that properly localized translation – and not simply translation rate – is a critical determinant of cardiac hypertrophy. In this work, we find that microtubule based-transport is essential to couple augmented transcription and translation to productive cardiomyocyte growth during cardiac stress. New contractile units are required during cardiac hypertrophy, though it remains unclear precisely where and how these new sarcomeres are added. Here the authors reveal that in the heart, microtubules spatiotemporally regulate mRNAs and ribosomes to build new sarcomeres, a role which is essential for growth.
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43
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Seifert A, Drechsler H, Japtok J, Korten T, Diez S, Hermann A. The ALS-Associated FUS (P525L) Variant Does Not Directly Interfere with Microtubule-Dependent Kinesin-1 Motility. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22052422. [PMID: 33670886 PMCID: PMC7957795 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22052422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Deficient intracellular transport is a common pathological hallmark of many neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Mutations in the fused-in-sarcoma (FUS) gene are one of the most common genetic causes for familial ALS. Motor neurons carrying a mutation in the nuclear localization sequence of FUS (P525L) show impaired axonal transport of several organelles, suggesting that mislocalized cytoplasmic FUS might directly interfere with the transport machinery. To test this hypothesis, we studied the effect of FUS on kinesin-1 motility in vitro. Using a modified microtubule gliding motility assay on surfaces coated with kinesin-1 motor proteins, we showed that neither recombinant wildtype and P525L FUS variants nor lysates from isogenic ALS-patient-specific iPSC-derived spinal motor neurons expressing those FUS variants significantly affected gliding velocities. We hence conclude that during ALS pathogenesis the initial negative effect of FUS (P525L) on axonal transport is an indirect nature and requires additional factors or mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Seifert
- Department of Neurology, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (A.S.); (J.J.)
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 01307 Dresden, Germany
- B CUBE—Center for Molecular Bioengineering and Cluster of Excellence Physics of Life, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (H.D.); (T.K.)
| | - Hauke Drechsler
- B CUBE—Center for Molecular Bioengineering and Cluster of Excellence Physics of Life, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (H.D.); (T.K.)
| | - Julia Japtok
- Department of Neurology, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (A.S.); (J.J.)
| | - Till Korten
- B CUBE—Center for Molecular Bioengineering and Cluster of Excellence Physics of Life, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (H.D.); (T.K.)
| | - Stefan Diez
- B CUBE—Center for Molecular Bioengineering and Cluster of Excellence Physics of Life, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (H.D.); (T.K.)
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, 01307 Dresden, Germany
- Correspondence: (S.D.); (A.H.); Tel.: +49-(0)351-463-43010 (S.D.); +49-(0)381-494-9541 (A.H.)
| | - Andreas Hermann
- Department of Neurology, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (A.S.); (J.J.)
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 01307 Dresden, Germany
- Translational Neurodegeneration Section “Albrecht-Kossel”, Department of Neurology, University Medical Center, University of Rostock, 18147 Rostock, Germany
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Rostock/Greifswald, 18147 Rostock, Germany
- Center for Transdisciplinary Neurosciences Rostock (CTNR), University Medical Center, University of Rostock, 18147 Rostock, Germany
- Correspondence: (S.D.); (A.H.); Tel.: +49-(0)351-463-43010 (S.D.); +49-(0)381-494-9541 (A.H.)
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The role of RNA-binding and ribosomal proteins as specific RNA translation regulators in cellular differentiation and carcinogenesis. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2020; 1867:166046. [PMID: 33383105 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2020.166046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Tight control of mRNA expression is required for cell differentiation; imbalanced regulation may lead to developmental disorders and cancer. The activity of the translational machinery (including ribosomes and translation factors) regulates the rate (slow or fast) of translation of encoded proteins, and the quality of these proteins highly depends on which mRNAs are available for translation. Specific RNA-binding and ribosomal proteins seem to play a key role in controlling gene expression to determine the differentiation fate of the cell. This demonstrates the important role of RNA-binding proteins, specific ribosome-binding proteins and microRNAs as key molecules in controlling the specific proteins required for the differentiation or dedifferentiation of cells. This delicate balance between specific proteins (in terms of quality and availability) and post-translational modifications occurring in the cytoplasm is crucial for cell differentiation, dedifferentiation and oncogenic potential. In this review, we report how defects in the regulation of mRNA translation can be dependent on specific proteins and can induce an imbalance between differentiation and dedifferentiation in cell fate determination.
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45
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March ZM, Sweeney K, Kim H, Yan X, Castellano LM, Jackrel ME, Lin J, Chuang E, Gomes E, Willicott CW, Michalska K, Jedrzejczak RP, Joachimiak A, Caldwell KA, Caldwell GA, Shalem O, Shorter J. Therapeutic genetic variation revealed in diverse Hsp104 homologs. eLife 2020; 9:e57457. [PMID: 33319748 PMCID: PMC7785292 DOI: 10.7554/elife.57457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The AAA+ protein disaggregase, Hsp104, increases fitness under stress by reversing stress-induced protein aggregation. Natural Hsp104 variants might exist with enhanced, selective activity against neurodegenerative disease substrates. However, natural Hsp104 variation remains largely unexplored. Here, we screened a cross-kingdom collection of Hsp104 homologs in yeast proteotoxicity models. Prokaryotic ClpG reduced TDP-43, FUS, and α-synuclein toxicity, whereas prokaryotic ClpB and hyperactive variants were ineffective. We uncovered therapeutic genetic variation among eukaryotic Hsp104 homologs that specifically antagonized TDP-43 condensation and toxicity in yeast and TDP-43 aggregation in human cells. We also uncovered distinct eukaryotic Hsp104 homologs that selectively antagonized α-synuclein condensation and toxicity in yeast and dopaminergic neurodegeneration in C. elegans. Surprisingly, this therapeutic variation did not manifest as enhanced disaggregase activity, but rather as increased passive inhibition of aggregation of specific substrates. By exploring natural tuning of this passive Hsp104 activity, we elucidated enhanced, substrate-specific agents that counter proteotoxicity underlying neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary M March
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
| | - Katelyn Sweeney
- Department of Genetics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
- Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
- Center for Cellular and Molecular Therapeutics, Children’s Hospital of PhiladelphiaPhiladelphiaUnited States
| | - Hanna Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of AlabamaTuscaloosaUnited States
| | - Xiaohui Yan
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of AlabamaTuscaloosaUnited States
| | - Laura M Castellano
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
- Pharmacology Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
| | - Meredith E Jackrel
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
| | - JiaBei Lin
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
| | - Edward Chuang
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
- Pharmacology Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
| | - Edward Gomes
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
| | - Corey W Willicott
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of AlabamaTuscaloosaUnited States
| | - Karolina Michalska
- Structural Biology Center, X-ray Science Division, Argonne National LaboratoryArgonneUnited States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of ChicagoChicagoUnited States
| | - Robert P Jedrzejczak
- Structural Biology Center, X-ray Science Division, Argonne National LaboratoryArgonneUnited States
| | - Andrzej Joachimiak
- Structural Biology Center, X-ray Science Division, Argonne National LaboratoryArgonneUnited States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of ChicagoChicagoUnited States
| | - Kim A Caldwell
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of AlabamaTuscaloosaUnited States
| | - Guy A Caldwell
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of AlabamaTuscaloosaUnited States
| | - Ophir Shalem
- Department of Genetics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
- Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
- Center for Cellular and Molecular Therapeutics, Children’s Hospital of PhiladelphiaPhiladelphiaUnited States
| | - James Shorter
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
- Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
- Pharmacology Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
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46
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Gittings LM, Sattler R. Recent advances in understanding amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and emerging therapies. Fac Rev 2020; 9:12. [PMID: 33659944 PMCID: PMC7886072 DOI: 10.12703/b/9-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease that is characterized by degeneration of both upper and lower motor neurons and subsequent progressive loss of muscle function. Within the last decade, significant progress has been made in the understanding of the etiology and pathobiology of the disease; however, treatment options remain limited and only two drugs, which exert a modest effect on survival, are approved for ALS treatment in the US. Therefore, the search for effective ALS therapies continues, and over 60 clinical trials are in progress for patients with ALS and other therapeutics are at the pre-clinical stage of development. Recent advances in understanding the genetics, pathology, and molecular mechanisms of ALS have led to the identification of novel targets and strategies that are being used in emerging ALS therapeutic interventions. Here, we review the current status and mechanisms of action of a selection of emerging ALS therapies in pre-clinical or early clinical development, including gene therapy, immunotherapy, and strategies that target neuroinflammation, phase separation, and protein clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren M Gittings
- Department of Neurobiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Rita Sattler
- Department of Neurobiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, Phoenix, AZ, USA
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Abstract
Specific RNAs are enriched at protrusive regions of migrating cells. This localization is important for cell migration on 2D surfaces. However, in vivo, tumor cells navigate complex 3D environments often in collective groups. Here, we investigated protrusion-enriched RNAs during collective 3D invasion. We show that specific RNAs exhibit a striking accumulation at the front of invasive leader cells. We provide insights into the mechanism underlying RNA accumulation at the invasive front, and we further demonstrate that it is required for efficient 3D invasion of tumor cells. We additionally observe RNA enrichment at invasive sites of in vivo tumors, supporting the physiological relevance of this mechanism and suggesting a targeting opportunity for perturbing cancer cell invasion. Localization of RNAs at protrusive regions of cells is important for single-cell migration on two-dimensional surfaces. Protrusion-enriched RNAs encode factors linked to cancer progression, such as the RAB13 GTPase and the NET1 guanine nucleotide exchange factor, and are regulated by the tumor-suppressor protein APC. However, tumor cells in vivo often do not move as single cells but rather utilize collective modes of invasion and dissemination. Here, we developed an inducible system of three-dimensional (3D) collective invasion to study the behavior and importance of protrusion-enriched RNAs. We find that, strikingly, both the RAB13 and NET1 RNAs are enriched specifically at the invasive front of leader cells in invasive cell strands. This localization requires microtubules and coincides with sites of high laminin concentration. Indeed, laminin association and integrin engagement are required for RNA accumulation at the invasive front. Importantly, perturbing RNA accumulation reduces collective 3D invasion. Examination of in vivo tumors reveals a similar localization of the RAB13 and NET1 RNAs at potential invasive sites, suggesting that this mechanism could provide a targeting opportunity for interfering with collective cancer cell invasion.
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48
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Younas N, Zafar S, Shafiq M, Noor A, Siegert A, Arora AS, Galkin A, Zafar A, Schmitz M, Stadelmann C, Andreoletti O, Ferrer I, Zerr I. SFPQ and Tau: critical factors contributing to rapid progression of Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neuropathol 2020; 140:317-339. [PMID: 32577828 PMCID: PMC7423812 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-020-02178-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Revised: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Dysfunctional RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) have been implicated in several neurodegenerative disorders. Recently, this paradigm of RBPs has been extended to pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Here, we identified disease subtype specific variations in the RNA-binding proteome (RBPome) of sporadic AD (spAD), rapidly progressive AD (rpAD), and sporadic Creutzfeldt Jakob disease (sCJD), as well as control cases using RNA pull-down assay in combination with proteomics. We show that one of these identified proteins, splicing factor proline and glutamine rich (SFPQ), is downregulated in the post-mortem brains of rapidly progressive AD patients, sCJD patients and 3xTg mice brain at terminal stage of the disease. In contrast, the expression of SFPQ was elevated at early stage of the disease in the 3xTg mice, and in vitro after oxidative stress stimuli. Strikingly, in rpAD patients’ brains SFPQ showed a significant dislocation from the nucleus and cytoplasmic colocalization with TIA-1. Furthermore, in rpAD brain lesions, SFPQ and p-tau showed extranuclear colocalization. Of note, association between SFPQ and tau-oligomers in rpAD brains suggests a possible role of SFPQ in oligomerization and subsequent misfolding of tau protein. In line with the findings from the human brain, our in vitro study showed that SFPQ is recruited into TIA-1-positive stress granules (SGs) after oxidative stress induction, and colocalizes with tau/p-tau in these granules, providing a possible mechanism of SFPQ dislocation through pathological SGs. Furthermore, the expression of human tau in vitro induced significant downregulation of SFPQ, suggesting a causal role of tau in the downregulation of SFPQ. The findings from the current study indicate that the dysregulation and dislocation of SFPQ, the subsequent DNA-related anomalies and aberrant dynamics of SGs in association with pathological tau represents a critical pathway which contributes to rapid progression of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neelam Younas
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Göttingen and the German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Robert-Koch-Straße 40, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Saima Zafar
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Göttingen and the German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Robert-Koch-Straße 40, 37075, Göttingen, Germany.
- Biomedical Engineering and Sciences Department, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering (SMME), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan.
| | - Mohsin Shafiq
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Göttingen and the German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Robert-Koch-Straße 40, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistraße 52, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Aneeqa Noor
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Göttingen and the German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Robert-Koch-Straße 40, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Anna Siegert
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Göttingen and the German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Robert-Koch-Straße 40, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Amandeep Singh Arora
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Göttingen and the German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Robert-Koch-Straße 40, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
- Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research, The Ohio State University, 460 Medical Center Dr, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
| | - Alexey Galkin
- St. Petersburg Branch, Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Ayesha Zafar
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistraße 52, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
- College of Medicine Center for Pharmacogenomics, The Ohio State University, 460 W 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH, 1004 BRT, USA
| | - Mathias Schmitz
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Göttingen and the German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Robert-Koch-Straße 40, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Olivier Andreoletti
- UMR INRA ENVT 1225- Interactions Hôte Agent Pathogène-École Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - Isidre Ferrer
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Bellvitge University Hospital-IDIBELL, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBERNED, Barcelona, Spain
- Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Inga Zerr
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Göttingen and the German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Robert-Koch-Straße 40, 37075, Göttingen, Germany.
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49
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Turner-Bridger B, Caterino C, Cioni JM. Molecular mechanisms behind mRNA localization in axons. Open Biol 2020; 10:200177. [PMID: 32961072 PMCID: PMC7536069 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.200177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Messenger RNA (mRNA) localization allows spatiotemporal regulation of the proteome at the subcellular level. This is observed in the axons of neurons, where mRNA localization is involved in regulating neuronal development and function by orchestrating rapid adaptive responses to extracellular cues and the maintenance of axonal homeostasis through local translation. Here, we provide an overview of the key findings that have broadened our knowledge regarding how specific mRNAs are trafficked and localize to axons. In particular, we review transcriptomic studies investigating mRNA content in axons and the molecular principles underpinning how these mRNAs arrived there, including cis-acting mRNA sequences and trans-acting proteins playing a role. Further, we discuss evidence that links defective axonal mRNA localization and pathological outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benita Turner-Bridger
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, UK
| | - Cinzia Caterino
- Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Jean-Michel Cioni
- Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
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50
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Tariq A, Lin J, Jackrel ME, Hesketh CD, Carman PJ, Mack KL, Weitzman R, Gambogi C, Hernandez Murillo OA, Sweeny EA, Gurpinar E, Yokom AL, Gates SN, Yee K, Sudesh S, Stillman J, Rizo AN, Southworth DR, Shorter J. Mining Disaggregase Sequence Space to Safely Counter TDP-43, FUS, and α-Synuclein Proteotoxicity. Cell Rep 2020; 28:2080-2095.e6. [PMID: 31433984 PMCID: PMC6750954 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.07.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 05/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2019] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Hsp104 is an AAA+ protein disaggregase, which can be potentiated via diverse mutations in its autoregulatory middle domain (MD) to mitigate toxic misfolding of TDP-43, FUS, and α-synuclein implicated in fatal neurodegenerative disorders. Problematically, potentiated MD variants can exhibit off-target toxicity. Here, we mine disaggregase sequence space to safely enhance Hsp104 activity via single mutations in nucleotide-binding domain 1 (NBD1) or NBD2. Like MD variants, NBD variants counter TDP-43, FUS, and α-synuclein toxicity and exhibit elevated ATPase and disaggregase activity. Unlike MD variants, non-toxic NBD1 and NBD2 variants emerge that rescue TDP-43, FUS, and α-synuclein toxicity. Potentiating substitutions alter NBD1 residues that contact ATP, ATP-binding residues, or the MD. Mutating the NBD2 protomer interface can also safely ameliorate Hsp104. Thus, we disambiguate allosteric regulation of Hsp104 by several tunable structural contacts, which can be engineered to spawn enhanced therapeutic disaggregases with minimal off-target toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber Tariq
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - JiaBei Lin
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Meredith E Jackrel
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Christina D Hesketh
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Peter J Carman
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Korrie L Mack
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Rachel Weitzman
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Craig Gambogi
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Oscar A Hernandez Murillo
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Sweeny
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Esin Gurpinar
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Adam L Yokom
- Graduate Program in Chemical Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Stephanie N Gates
- Graduate Program in Chemical Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Keolamau Yee
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Saurabh Sudesh
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Jacob Stillman
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Alexandra N Rizo
- Graduate Program in Chemical Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Daniel R Southworth
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - James Shorter
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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