STUDIES ON LYSOSOMES. III. THE EFFECTS OF STREPTOLYSINS O AND S ON THE RELEASE OF ACID HYDROLASES FROM A GRANULAR FRACTION OF RABBIT LIVER

MOTION PICTURE STUDY OF THE TOXIC ACTION OF STREPTOLYSINS ON LEUCOCYTES

The initial morphologic alteration in rabbit polymorphonuclear leucocytes exposed to streptolysin is rapid and extensive lysis of cytoplasmic granules. The granules appear to rupture directly into the cell sap. Within a few minutes following degranulation, the leucocyte rounds up, filamentous processes appear on the cell membrane, the cytoplasm liquefies, and finally the nuclear lobes swell and fuse. Streptolysin O causes these changes in intact leucocytes when added in concentrations only slightly higher than those required for release of hydrolases from isolated liver lysosomes, and furthermore exerts its action on granulocytes promptly. On the other hand streptolysin S acts on white cells only after a 15 to 30 minute delay, and the levels necessary to disrupt granules in leucocytes are considerably higher than those which act on lysosome suspensions. Exposure of rabbit alveolar macrophages to streptolysin O also results in lysis of granules, soon followed by alterations in the cytoplasm and membrane. The observations are in accord with the hypothesis that streptolysins penetrate the leucocyte membrane and bring about lysis of granules. Autolytic enzymes released from the granules might then be responsible for the subsequent damage seen in various other cell structures.

LYSIS OF PLEUROPNEUMONIA-LIKE ORGANISMS BY STAPHYLOCOCCAL AND STREPTOCOCCAL TOXINS

Six strains representing three species of Mycoplasma were examined for susceptibility to lysis by staphylococcal and streptococcal toxins. All were sensitive to staphylococcal alpha-toxin, two to streptolysin S, and three to streptolysin O. The results support the concept that the limiting membrane of pleuropneumonia-like organisms is basically similar to those of many other cell types and provide additional evidence for the participation of cholesterol in cytolysis induced by streptolysin O.

MOTION PICTURE STUDIES ON DEGRANULATION OF HORSE EOSINOPHILS DURING PHAGOCYTOSIS

Horse eosinophil function has been studied in vitro by means of phase contrast cinemicrophotography. Locomotion of horse eosinophils was inhibited by serum factors reacting with glass surfaces. Under appropriate conditions which eliminated this inhibitory effect, eosinophils moved about and ingested some particles as rapidly as did neutrophils. Eosinophils were attracted to and readily engulfed such diverse materials as yeast cell walls, foreign erythrocytes, and antigen-antibody precipitates. Specific antibody was required for phagocytosis of red cells, and greatly accelerated the uptake of yeast cell walls. Horse eosinophil granules situated adjacent to material being engulfed disrupted with discharge of granule contents into or alongside the phagocytic vacuole. Granule disruption resulted in a clear zone and deposition of amorphous, phase-dense material. A heat-labile serum factor was required for degranulation of eosinophils ingesting foreign red cells, but not for degranulation during engulfment of yeast cell walls or antigen-antibody precipitates. Horse eosinophils were incapable under these conditions of engulfing an entire human red cell. The eosinophil commonly put out a large pseudopod to surround about half the red cell, and then appeared to constrict this pseudopod distally to cut the erythrocyte in half. It is concluded that eosinophils are phagocytic cells, resembling neutrophils in many of their properties. Any specific functions of eosinophils, distinguishing them from other phagocytes, remain to be discovered.

STUDIES ON LYSOSOMES. V. THE EFFECTS OF STREPTOLYSINS AND OTHER HEMOLYTIC AGENTS ON ISOLATED LEUCOCYTE GRANULES

Granules from rabbit peritoneal leucocytes were prepared in 0.3 M sucrose as an optically homogeneous suspension with the aid of heparin. Lysis of the granules in vitro was followed by measurement of decreases in the apparent absorbance of the suspensions at 520 mmicro and was accompanied by solubilization of beta-glucuronidase from the particles. Streptolysins O and S from hemolytic streptococci lysed the granules at 20 degrees C; the initial rate of lysis by streptolysin O was greater than that by streptolysin S. Cysteine activated, and specific antibody inhibited, streptolysin O; antimycin and bovine serum albumin inhibited streptolysin S. The granules were not lysed by any other streptococcal exotoxins. Lysis was irreversible and depended neither upon oxidative phosphorylation, nor upon intact respiration. The granules were also lysed by lysolecithin, at concentrations from 2 x 10(-6)M to 1 x 10(-4)M; bovine serum albumin and antimycin also inhibited this lytic agent. Such other hemolytic agents and procedures as vitamin A, non-ionic detergents, and ultraviolet irradiation also disrupted leucocyte granules. In susceptibility to lysis and other properties, the granules of white cells resembled erythrocytes. Leucocyte granules differed from mitochondria in that they did not appear to take up or extrude water reversibly; they were unaffected by thyroxine, phosphate, or metabolic substrate. The studies are compatible with the hypotheses that white cell granules are similar to lysosomes isolated from other tissues, and that they share common surface properties with erythrocytes.

LYSIS OF BACTERIAL PROTOPLASTS AND SPHEROPLASTS BY STAPHYLOCOCCAL ALPHA-TOXIN AND STREPTOLYSIN S

Bernheimer, Alan W. (New York University School of Medicine, New York, N.Y.), and Lois L. Schwartz. Lysis of bacterial protoplasts and spheroplasts by staphylococcal alpha-toxin and streptolysin S. J. Bacteriol. 89:1387-1392. 1965.-Protoplasts of Bacillus megaterium, Sarcina lutea, and Streptococcus pyogenes, and spheroplasts of Escherichia coli were lysed by staphylococcal alpha-toxin, whereas spheroplasts of Vibrio metschnikovii and V. comma were not. In the spectrum of its lytic action, streptolysin S qualitatively resembled staphylococcal alpha-toxin except for failure to lyse S. pyogenes protoplasts. In contrast to the two foregoing agents, streptolysin O did not lyse protoplasts and spheroplasts. The observations are interpreted in relation to similarities and differences in lipid composition of bacterial and mammalian cell membranes.

STUDIES ON LYSOSOMES. IV. SOLUBILIZATION OF ENZYMES DURING MITOCHONDRIAL SWELLING AND DISRUPTION OF LYSOSOMES BY STREPTOLYSIN S AND OTHER HEMOLYTIC AGENTS

Streptolysins S and O from hemolytic streptococci were found to induce mitochondrial swelling and the release of malic dehydrogenase from mitochondria; no other streptococcal products were as active. Mg(++), cyanide, dinitrophenol, bovine serum albumin, and antimycin all inhibited streptolysin-induced mitochondrial swelling; only the latter two agents prevented release of malic dehydrogenase from the particles. The streptolysins also solubilized beta-glucuronidase from the less numerous lysosomes of mitochondrial fractions. Vitamin A induced swelling of mitochondria with release of malic dehydrogenase and, at higher concentrations, release of beta-glucuronidase. In these effects, streptolysin S and vitamin A resembled cysteine and ascorbate, which induced swelling and lysis of mitochondria together with solubilization of enzymes. In contrast, mitochondrial swelling induced by such agents as phosphate, thyroxine, or substrates was not accompanied by release of enzymes. The release of enzymes from particles is suggested as a criterion for distinguishing "lytic" agents from those which induce mitochondrial swelling dependent upon electron transport. It was possible to dissociate effects on mitochondria and lysosomes in these experiments; less streptolysin was necessary to damage lysosomes than mitochondria; the converse was found with vitamin A. Injury to mitochondria resulted from the direct action of these agents, since the lysosomal enzymes released as a consequence of their action were not capable of inducing mitochondrial swelling or release of enzymes under the conditions studied.

Streptococcus uberis resists the bactericidal action of bovine neutrophils despite the presence of bound immunoglobulin

Streptococcus uberis 0140J was more resistant to the bactericidal action of bovine neutrophils after growth in chemically defined medium (CDM) supplemented with casein hydrolysate than when grown in CDM alone. Neither adult bovine serum obtained prior to vaccination nor hyperimmune serum raised against this bacterium was capable of acting as an effective opsonin towards S. uberis grown in the presence of casein hydrolysate. There was no detectable difference in the ability of bacteria grown in either CDM or CDM supplemented with casein hydrolysate to bind immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1), IgG2, or IgM from either hyperimmune serum or preparations of immunoglobulin from the same serum. Bacteria of both the phagocytosis-resistant and phagocytosis-sensitive phenotypes presented the same amount of IgG2 Fc terminus on their surfaces. It is concluded that the inducible resistance of S. uberis to bactericidal action of bovine neutrophils is not mediated by inhibition of antibody binding.

An antiallergic activity of disodium cromoglycate unrelated to mast cell activation

The pharmacological effects of disodium cromoglycate (DSCG) were studied in rats during the development of reactions to various allergens or carrageenin. DSCG (10 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg, i.v.) showed pronounced inhibitory effects on type I and type III (passive Arthus) allergic reactions. An immunological degranulation of mast cells and a significant decrease in tissue histamine content were observed in type I allergic reactions but not in type III allergic reactions characterized by an apparent infiltration of neutrophils. An antihistaminic agent, promethazine (1 mg/kg, i.v.) was effective only against type I allergic reactions and totally ineffective against type III allergic reactions. Thus, the results obtained above strongly suggest that DSCG exhibits at least two mechanisms of antiallergic action; one is related to mediator release from mast cells and the other is unrelated to mast cell activation.

Effects of pneumolysin on human polymorphonuclear leukocytes and platelets

Pneumolysin was bound by human polymorphonuclear leukocytes in a reaction which occurred very rapidly at 0 degrees C. Low concentrations of pneumolysin were found to stimulate leukocyte migration and lysosomal enzyme secretion. At increasing lysin levels, inhibition of spontaneous migration and chemotaxis, cell death, and lysis were observed. Pneumolysin was also found to lyse platelets and to activate serum to become chemotactic.

The protective effect of some phenothiazine derivatives against streptolysin O

1 Chlorpromazine (Cpz) and promethazine (Pmz) protected mice against lethal doses of streptolysin O (SLO) given intravenously. Three other phenothiazine derivatives had similar but lesser effects. 2 The protective effect developed slowly; maximal protection was obtained 4 h after subcutaneous injection of Cpz and Pmz. 3 The haemolytic activity of SLO in vitro was also inhibited by Cpz.

Effects of 2-(4-(2-imidazo[1,2-a]pyridyl)phenyl) propionic acid (Y-9213) and anti-inflammatory drugs on erythrocytes, polymorphonuclear leukocytes and lysosomes in vitro

2-(4-(2-Imidazo[1,2-a]pyridyl)phenyl)propionic acid (Y-9213) with analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory activities significantly inhibited hemolysis of rat erythrocytes. Activity of Y-9213 (100--500 micrometer) on hemolysis was more potent than that of phenylbutazone, and less potent than that of indomethacin. The spontaneous release of enzymes from rat liver lysosomes by incubation alone was significantly inhibited by Y-9213 (1--100 micrometer) to the same degrees as phenylbutazone or tinoridine hydrochloride. Release of enzymes from the lysosomes by addition of phospholipase C (PLC, 0.03 units/ml) was slightly inhibited by Y-9213 (10--100 micrometer) and phenylbutazone (100 micrometer). Dexamethasone, prednisolone, hydrocortisone and tinoridine hydrochloride (1--10 micrometer) inhibited more potently the PLC-induced release than the spontaneous release. Y-9213 (1--100 micrometer) inhibited considerably the release of enzymes from intact lysosomes of rabbit polymorphonuclear (PMN) leukocytes. The release of enzymes from the PMN leukocyte lysosomes preincubated at 37 degrees C for 15 min was strongly inhibited by dexamethasone, prednisolone and hydrocortisone (1--100 micrometer), but not by Y-9213, phenylbutazone and indomethacin (100 micrometer). Y-9213 (0.1--10 micrometer) also inhibited significantly the phagocytic secretion of lysosomal enzymes from PMN leukocytes without affecting phagocytosis of the particles. Activity of this agent was similar to that of phenylbutazone, and less active than that of indomethacin, dexamethasone or prednisolone. Our results suggest that Y-9213 may stabilize membranes of erythrocytes and lysosomes and inhibit phagocytic secretion of lysosomal constitutents from PMN leukocytes.

Possible involvement of cyclic AMP in inflammation induced by a surfactant

Alkyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride (alkyl-DBAC), a cationic surfactant, produces acute exudative inflammation accompanied by an enhancement of energy metabolism. The mechanism of metabolic changes, consequently the cyclic AMP level and the effects of certain drugs were determined in the gastrocnemius muscles of rats in which acute exudative inflammation had been induced by intramuscular injections of alkyl-DBAC. A transient increase in the cyclic AMP level was noted at 15 to 30 minutes after the injection of alkyl-DBAC, and this elevation was antagonized by chlorpromazine, diphenhydramine, promethazine, aspirin and indomethacin. The time course of increasing tendency in the cyclic AMP level after the injection of histamine closely paralleled that of alkyl-DBAC. These results suggest that cyclic AMP may be involved in the metabolic changes with inflammation induced by alkyl-DBAC.

Effects of ID-540 on averaged photopalpebral reflex in man

Effects of ID-540, a recently introduced benzodiazepine derivative, on the averaged photopalpebral reflex (PPR), subjective symptoms and serum levels of ID-540 and its principal metabolite, N-desmethyl-ID-540 following an oral dose of 0.5 mg were investigated in 4 healthy male Japanese students in their early twenties. Both the latencies of PPR, P1 and P2 latency, showed a prolongation and maximum level at 2-2.5 hours after administration and tended to decline thereafter to control levels. The serum concentration of ID-540 showed a peak level at 2 hours after dosing, then showed a decline at 4 hours. The N-desmethyl-ID-540 exhibited a slow, gradual rise in the serum over the first 4 hours and there was a tendency toward a continued rise even at 24 hours. These parameters were of striking resemblance in the time-course of changes after oral dosing. Thus the PPR test may be a useful means of determining the clinical effects of anxiolytic agents. ID-540 appears to be an agent with remarkable anxiolytic effects.

Lactoferrin and lysozyme levels in synovial fluid: differential indices of articular inflammation and degradation

Lysozyme and lactoferrin levels were measured in 71 synovial fluids (SF) of patients with traumatic effusions, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, pseudogout, septic arthritis, and gout, as well as in 91 synovial fluids graded according to their neutrophil count. Elevated lysozyme levels were found in all the inflammatory arthritides and also in osteoarthritis. Lactoferrin levels were not increased in osteoarthritis but displayed a close correlation to the extent of the inflammatory response as judged by SF neutrophilia. The ratio of lysozyme to lactoferrin decreased progressively with increasing SF neutrophilia. In vitro experiments showed that lactoferrin is released from neutrophils isochronously with lysozyme and beta-glucuronidase. Lactoferrin was not found in hyaline cartilage, a tissue known to contain lysozyme. These results are consistent with belief that SF lysozyme has a major derivation from both cartilage and neutrophils, and that lactoferrin arises only from neutrophils. These findings indicate that the simultaneous measurement of lysozyme and lactoferrin provides a potentially useful index of both joint inflammation and cartilage degradation.

Human cartilage lysozyme

The lysozyme content of human cartilage was measured by incubation of lyophilized, powdered cartilage in a variety of buffers and salt solutions, and the factors controlling the binding of lysozyme within cartilage were studied. Lysozyme was extracted from hyaline cartilage by buffers of pH greater than 9.0 by solutions 1 M in monovalent cations, and by solutions 0.12-0.40 M in divalent cations. The ability of cations to extract lysozyme from cartilage agreed with their known affinities for binding to chondroitin sulfate. The total extractable lysozyme content of five samples of human costal cartilage ranged from 1.45 to 3.36 mug lysozyme per mg of cartilage; for five samples of hyaline cartilage from peripheral joints the range was 0.80-3.03 mug lysozyme per mg of cartilage. Cartilage incubated in excess exogenous lysozyme could bind 0.053 equivalents of lysozyme per equivalent of chondroitin sulfate. Fibrocartilage and synovium from knee joints yielded no detectable lysozyme, despite the fact that synovium, a tissue rich in lysosomes, contained measurable quantities of beta-glucuronidase. Lysozyme extraction from cartilage was not augmented by incubation with streptolysin S. When incubation was carried out with mild extraction techniques, lysozyme extraction from cartilage tended to parallel uronic acid release, both as a function of time and from one specimen to another. The active material as lysozyme. Lysozyme occurs in human hyaline cartilage as a counterion to polyanionic glycosaminoglycans. Carextracted from cartilage met five criteria for identification tilage lysozyme appears to be extracellular and nonlysosomal. Degradation of cartilage may contribute to the increased serum and synovial fluid lysozyme levels often present in patients with rheumatoid arthritis.

The study of the acid phosphatase of macrophagal lysosomes in delayed-type hypersensitivity

The acid phosphatase (APh) has been studied, using various techniques, in peritoneal macrophage cultures from guinea-pigs, normal and sensitized with group A streptococci or BCG.

The proportion of cells in which the acid phosphatase (APh) is determined histochemically, without preliminary fixation of cells, is increased as a result of the action of the specific antigen on macrophage cultures prepared from animals with delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH). The increase is immunologically specific, since it is not evoked by antigens to which the animal is not sensitized. The described action of the specific antigen on cells in DTH is not dependent on increased amounts of APh and, apparently, is related to increased membrane permeability. The latter facilitates penetration of the substrate, used in APh determination, into lysosomes. Suppression of the effect of the specific antigen on cells with dexamethasone supports this suggestion. Increased membrane permeability, resulting from the action of the specific antigen on macrophages in DTH, should probably promote penetration into the tissues of lysosomal enzymes. The latter might result in tissue damage due to the action of the lysosomal enzymes.

New thesis on the development of erosion and dental caries

In vitro decalcification of human enamel was induced with a suspension of dog leukocytes and corn starch in plasma under sterile conditions. In controls without leukocytes decalcification did not occur. Enamel was protected against decalcification in the presence of leukocytes under these conditions by addition of sodium fluoride.